ap bio final

polarity

molecules having uneven distribution of charges

hydrogen bond

weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom.

cohesion

attraction between molecules of the same substance

adhesion

attraction between molecules of different substances

capillary action

the combined force of cohesion and adhesion that allows water to go against gravity

hypotonic

having a lower concentration of solute than another solution (less stuff, more water)

hypertonic

having a higher concentration of solute than another solution (more stuff, less water)

lipids (CHO)

non-polar fatty acid monomers used for energy storage, cell communication, and cell support

nucleic acids (CHONP)

DNA and RNA, with 5 bases (ATCGU)

carbohydrates (CHO)

used as a fuel for energy production and powering cellular processes

proteins (CHON)

amino acid group essential for structure, function, and regulation

prokaryotic cell

cell that does not have a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles, photosynthesizing on the membrane

eukaryotic cell

a cell with distinct, membrane-bounded organelles, has a nucleus, and can compartmentalize

phospholipids

hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail

water potential

pressure potential (usually 0) + solute potential

solute potential

-iCRT

electrochemical gradient

the combined effect of two forces—chemical concentration gradient (difference in ion concentration) and electrical gradient (difference in charge)—that drives the movement of ions across a membrane

enzymes

proteins that speed up chemical reactions

enzyme-substrate complex

enzyme binds to its substrate

nucleus

control center of the cellribosomes

site of protein synthesis

smooth ER

synthesizes lipids and is the portion of the ER with no ribosomes

active transport

energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference

facilitated diffusion

process of diffusion in which molecules pass across the membrane through cell membrane channels

passive transport

the movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell

rough ER

ER that is dotted with ribosomes responsible for producing proteins

Golgi apparatus/complex

Packages and sends proteins; assists in the transport, but is not the actual transport network

mitochondria

powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production

lysosomes

break down old organelles and debris with digestive enzymes and perform apoptosis

vacuoles

cell organelle that stores materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates

peroxisomes

produce hydrogen peroxide; detoxify harmful substances

cytoskeleton

a network of fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement

endocytosis

process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane

entropy

a measure of disorder or randomness in the universe

enzyme specificity

the concept that each enzyme catalyzes only one kind of reaction

competitive inhibition

substance that resembles the normal substrate competes with the substrate for the active site

non-competitive inhibition

inhibitor binds to a different place on enzyme and changes the shape of the enzyme, preventing substrate from binding

anaerobic cells

do not need oxygen to survive

heterotrophs

an organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products.

glycolysis

the breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing 2 ATP and 2 pyruvate, and 2 NADH

fermentation

a process that turns pyruvate into lactic acid/ethanol without the use of oxygen

krebs cycle

second stage of cellular respiration, in which pyruvate, oxidized to Acetyl-CoA, is broken down into carbon dioxide, 2 ATP, 2 FADH2, and 6 NADH

electron transport chain

A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP

NADH

the reduced form of NAD+; an electron-carrying molecule that functions in cellular respiration

FADH2

electron carrier produced during the Krebs cycle

matrix

innermost compartment of the mitochondrion, which is where the Krebs cycle occurs

christae

folds of the inner mitochondrial membrane, where the electron transport chain is located

ATP synthase

Large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP

chlorophyll

green pigment in plants that absorbs light energy used to carry out photosynthesis

chloroplast

an organelle found in plant and algae cells where photosynthesis occurs

thylakoids

a flattened membrane sac inside the chloroplast, used to convert light energy to chemical energy.

granum

stack of thylakoids

lumen

the hollow inside of the thylakoid, facilitating electron transportation

stroma

the fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.

calvin cycle

reactions of photosynthesis in which energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy compounds such as sugars

photosystem 1

a light reaction in which ATP and NADPH are formed (comes 2nd)

photosystem 2

a light reaction in which ATP and NADPH are formed (comes first)

negative feedback loop

a signal causes a response which decreases the signal

positive feedback loop

signal causes a response which increases the signal

mitosis

cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes

cytokinesis

division of the cytoplasm during cell division

chromatid

one of two identical "sister" parts of a duplicated chromosome

centromere

area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached

G1

cell growth stage in mitosis

S phase

DNA replication

G2

cell prepares to divide

G0

a nondividing state occupied by cells that have left the cell cycle, sometimes reversibly.

prophase

chromosomes become visible, nuclear envelop dissolves, spindle forms

metaphase

chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell

anaphase

phase of mitosis in which the chromosomes separate by spindle fibers and move to opposite ends of the cell

telephase

the cytoplasm separates. two new cells contain the same number of chromosomes as the original cell

interphase

period of the cell cycle between cell divisions

tumor suppressor genes

make proteins that stop cell division and kill cells

proto-oncogenes

code for proteins that stimulate normal cell growth and division

meiosis

cell division that produces gametes in sexually reproducing organisms, resulting in a total of 4 haploid daughter cells

law of segregation

the pairs of homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis so that only one chromosome from each pair is present in each gamete

law of independent assortment

genes separate independently of one another in meiosis

complete dominance

a relationship in which one allele is completely dominant over another

incomplete dominance

situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another allele, often displaying a mix of both (black and white alleles show gray)

codominant

a heterozygote in which both alleles are fully expressed (spots/stripes)

chi-squared

(observed-expected)^2/expected

sex-linked genes

genes located on the sex chromosomes, usually X