Discovery of the New World (Study Cards)

The Fall of Constantinople (1453)

• The fall of Constantinople was a major event that spurred European exploration.

• Constantinople was located in the Byzantine Empire, in modern-day Turkey, and served as a crucial gateway between East and West.

• It facilitated the flow of luxury goods from Asia, India, and the Middle East to Western Europe.

• The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 disrupted this trade, as the Turks imposed extra charges on Western Europeans for goods passing through their territory.

• This prompted Western Europeans, particularly the Spanish, to seek alternative routes to Asia, thus driving exploration efforts.

The Spanish Reconquista

• The Spanish Reconquista, meaning "reconquest," also played a significant role in paving the way for the discovery of the New World.

• In the 8th century AD (700s), Spain was conquered by the Moors, a Middle Eastern people.

• For approximately 600-700 years, the Spanish engaged in a slow but steady effort to expel the Moors and reclaim their country.

• By 1490, the Spanish, under the emerging rulers Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile (who married in 1469), successfully defeated the last remaining Moorish state in Spain, Granada.

• The fall of Granada in 1492 marked the end of the Reconquista, reuniting Spain and creating an opportunity for new endeavors, including exploration.

Christopher Columbus and His Theories

• Christopher Columbus, a Spanish navigator, sought sponsorship for his exploration idea.

• Columbus believed in the existence of ocean currents that followed predictable patterns.

• He theorized that the currents in the North Atlantic Ocean could be utilized to sail west more efficiently.

• He understood the currents flowed clockwise in a circular pattern.

• Sailing directly west from Spain was slow due to opposing currents.

• Columbus proposed sailing south from Spain to reach the western tip of Africa, where the current would then carry ships westward.

• He also recognized the importance of returning safely, understanding that the same current that carried ships west would eventually turn north and then east, facilitating a return to Spain.

• Columbus was also aware of persistent winds known as trade winds, which blow from the Northeast to the Southwest near the Equator, and westerlies in the Northern Hemisphere, which blow from the Southwest to the Northeast.

• His plan involved sailing south, being carried west by trade winds and currents, and then sailing north upon reaching his destination to be carried east by the currents and westerlies.

• Columbus miscalculated the distance to Asia, believing it was only a few thousand miles from Spain when it was actually closer to 10,000 miles.

• He was unaware of the existence of North America, which lay between Europe and Asia.

Columbus's Voyage and Its Aftermath

• Columbus received authorization and sponsorship from the Spanish crown to undertake his expedition.

• He was promised a share of conquered lands and the title of ruler in the king's name if successful.

• Columbus sailed south, then west, and landed in the Caribbean, which he mistakenly believed to be China.

• The encounter between Columbus and his men and the Caribbean islanders occurred on October 12, 1492.

• Columbus established a colony and exerted control over the Native Americans, treating them as slaves.

• His cruelty towards the Native Americans led to his arrest and removal from power by Spanish authorities.

• Priests accompanied the expedition to spread Catholicism, as mandated by the Pope.

• Bartolome de las Casas, one of the priests, reported Columbus's actions to the Spanish king and queen.

• Columbus faded from the picture, but the Spanish remained in their colony, continuing their empire in the New World.

Subsequent Explorations and Exploitation

• Others followed in Columbus's footsteps, seeking to explore and exploit the new lands.

• The Spanish established their headquarters in Cuba, which served as a launching point for further expeditions and military campaigns.

• Hernan Cortez, a young Spanish nobleman, gained command of an expedition to Mexico after ingratiating himself with the governor of Cuba, Diego Velasquez.

• Cortez was later removed from command due to rumors of plotting against Velazquez but proceeded with the expedition anyway, committing mutiny.

Cortez's Expedition to Mexico

• Cortez sailed to Veracruz, Mexico, in July 1519.

• To prevent his men from mutinying and returning to Cuba, Cortez famously scuttled his ships, leaving them with no choice but to follow him.

• Cortez encountered natives who were part of the Aztec Empire and were exploited by the Aztecs.

• The locals realized that Cortez was not their enemy and could potentially help them gain freedom from the Aztecs.

• The Spanish were assisted by a native woman named La Maliniche, who spoke multiple languages and served as a translator and interpreter for Cortez.

• La Maliniche was given to Cortez as a gift (slave) but became an important diplomat and eventually Cortez's wife, bearing his children.

• She is viewed differently by different people. Some view her as a traitor because she helped the Spanish conquer the Aztecs. Others view her as an empowered woman.

• Cortez, La Maliniche, his soldiers, and their Native American allies marched to the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan.

• The Aztec ruler, Moctezuma II, received the Spanish as honored guests.

Conquest of the Aztec Empire

• The Spanish took Moctezuma hostage and attempted to rule through him.

• Diego Velasquez sent an expedition to arrest Cortez for mutiny.

• Cortez intercepted the Spanish soldiers and convinced them to join him by promising them wealth.

• He left 200 men behind to hold Tenochtitlan, but they overreacted to rumors of a conspiracy and massacred Aztec leaders during a festival in the Great Temple, fueling an uprising.

• Cortez returned with reinforcements, but they were forced to retreat from Tenochtitlan in La Noche Triste (the sad night) on June 30-July 1, 1520, during which hundreds of Spaniards and thousands of Native American allies died.

• The Spanish began a siege of Tenochtitlan, cutting off supplies and firing artillery into the city.

• In August 1521, Tenochtitlan fell to Cortez and the Spanish, marking the end of the Aztec Empire.

• The Spanish destroyed Tenochtitlan and built Mexico City on its ruins.

Further Conquests and Explorations

• Inspired by Cortez's success, other Spaniards launched their own expeditions to conquer other Native American societies.

• Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire in what is today Peru in 1533, employing similar tactics of deception and violence.

• Hernando de Soto explored the Southeastern United States in search of riches but was killed in battles with Native Americans.

Consolidation of the Spanish Empire

• The Spanish consolidated their empire, taking power from adventurers like Cortez and Pizarro and establishing a more regular government.

• The Spanish empire extended from Wyoming to the southern tip of South America, becoming enormous and fabulously rich due to its abundance of precious metals, raw materials, and spices.

• Wealth from the Spanish empire was transported back to Spain in galleons, fueling the rise of Western Europe as a world power.

• The Spanish spent their money on goods from other European countries, indirectly enriching them as well.

Society in New Spain

• Unlike the British, who sought to replace Native Americans, the Spanish established a mixed society in New Spain due to their smaller population.

• Spanish society was structured like a pyramid, with enslaved persons (mostly Africans and Caribbeans) at the bottom, followed by Native American Indians, mestizos (people of Spanish and Native American blood), criollos (people born in New Spain with Spanish parents), and Peninsulares (Spaniards born in Spain) at the top.

• The Encomienda system was established, where Spaniards were given land grants and the right to demand labor from Native Americans, effectively making them unfree.

• By the end of the 16th century, the Spanish established a legal framework for their empire called the Law of the Indies, which included protections for natives and established patterns for settlements.

• Three main types of settlements were established, Pueblos (civilian towns), Presidios (forts or military bases), and Missions (church settlements for converting Native Americans).

Conclusion

• Columbus was the right man at the right time for discovering the New World, but he was also a tyrant.

• European exploration of the New World proceeded rather slowly.

• The settlement of the spanish empire proceeded very slowly depending on strategy.