APUSH Chapter 30
Chapter 30: Political Storms at Home and Abroad, 1968-1980
The Counterculture
Insulated from want by a robust economy and dismayed by the war, racism, and materialism, many young people attempted to develop a new set of cultural values based on personal freedom, distrust of authority, a strong sense of community, and environmental awareness.
While drug use and sexual freedom received a good deal of media coverage, it is important to note that only a minority of young people were hippies.
American Indian Movement (AIM)
To dramatize their demands, AIM seized and occupied Alcatraz Island (a former federal prison) in 1969, the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Washington in 1972, and the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota (site of the 1890 massacre) in 1973. The Wounded Knee protest led to a 71-day siege by federal marshals, but the issues which sparked the protests were not resolved.
Stonewall Riots—1969
In June 1969, a group of gay customers at the popular Stonewall Inn gay bar in New York angrily stood up against police harassment; a riot broke out. As word spread throughout the city, the customers of the inn were soon joined by other gay men and women. Police reinforcements arrived and dispersed the rioters, but the next night over 1000 demonstrators returned. For hours, protesters rioted outside the Stonewall Inn, and more demonstrations took place throughout the city in the following days.
After the riots, heated debates about civil rights were held among New York's LGBT community, leading to the formation of advocacy groups such as the Gay Liberation Front. The first gay pride parade in U.S. history took place on the first anniversary of the riots, near the Stonewall Inn in New York. Within two years gay rights groups had been started in nearly every major city in the United States.
Roe v. Wade—1973
Beginning in the late 1960s, some states began removing restrictions on abortion. In Roe, the Supreme Court ruled that a state can impose no restrictions on abortion during the first trimester of pregnancy and can ban abortion entirely in the last trimester.
Equal Rights Amendment Fails—1982
Congress approved a proposed constitutional amendment to ban discrimination based on gender in 1972 and sent it to the states. Thirty states voted for the amendment in the first year, but thirty-eight states were needed for final ratification, and increasing opposition to the ERA stalled its progress.
Opponents of the ERA led by Phyllis Schlafly charged that the amendment would lead to women in combat, the breakdown of the family, government funding of abortion, and elimination of separate bathrooms for men and women. Although Congress extended the deadline for ratification by three years, the ERA was only approved by thirty-five states.
Nixon’s Southern Strategy
Having won the 1968 election by a very narrow margin, Richard Nixon governed in his first term hoping to appeal to Wallace voters. His Southern strategy involved slowing down progress on civil rights, appointing conservatives to the federal courts, and criticizing the Left to appeal to the Silent Majority.
Dixiecrats
Also known as the States’ Rights Democrats, this was a right-wing Democratic splinter group that first appeared in the 1948 Presidential election. In the 1948, the Dixiecrats nominated Strom Thurmond of South Carolina. They received over a million votes and won SC, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. They dissolved after 1948; however, Northern Democrats referred to some Southern politicians as Dixiecrats until the 1990s.
The Dixiecrats supported States’ Rights for segregation in education and Jim Crow in political/economic segregation. They heavily opposed the Civil Rights Movement.
1968 Chicago Democratic Convention
Opposition to the war was so strong that LBJ decided not to run for reelection. Until his assassination, Robert Kennedy was perhaps the leading contender. With Kennedy gone, Johnson’s vice president Hubert Humphrey won the nomination at a Chicago convention marked by huge antiwar protests and police brutality.
Election of 1968
The Democrats nominated Hubert Humphrey during the violent Chicago Democratic convention.
The Republicans nominated Richard Nixon who pledged to end the war with honor but provided no details.
Independent George Wallace attacked crime, antiwar protestors, civil rights, and Washington bureaucrats. Wallace won 13% of the popular vote.
In a very tight race, Nixon defeated Humphrey.
The Domestic Nixon
Nixon on Civil Rights: An Enigma
Nixon was viewed as a racial conservative due to his 1968 Southern Strategy, his appeal to the Silent Majority, his references to law and order (viewed as oppressing minorities through crime), his nomination of southern conservatives to the Supreme Court, and his proposal of a constitutional amendment to ban school busing for school integration.
However, there are arguments suggesting Nixon was more moderate and even liberal with respect to civil rights. He signed various amendments in 1970 to amend the Civil Rights Act of 1965. This lowered the voting age to 18, which would become the basis for the 26th Amendment. He supported equal opportunity legislation, as well as an increase to affirmative action.
After the release of the tapes, though, it was discovered that Nixon was incredibly cynical and often made both anti-Semitic and racist comments.
New Federalism
Nixon’s administration redefined federalism in the US. Remember, federalism is the relationship between the central government and the states under the central government. New Federalism was the beginning of the federal government providing block grants to states to solve social issues.
Revenue Sharing (NOT in OpenStax)
During the Nixon years, Congress was controlled by the Democrats, who generally favored liberal social programs. Nixon advocated a program of revenue sharing—sending federal tax dollars to local governments. Nixon assumed that local governments would spend the money on more conservative causes, e.g., law enforcement. In addition, sending this money out of Washington would reduce the amount available for Congress to spend on liberal programs.
Impoundment (NOT in OpenStax)
Nixon also sought to limit spending on liberal social programs through impoundment, that is, by refusing to spend money appropriated by Congress. The president’s power to impound funds was limited by the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Act of 1974, which required congressional acquiescence in any such impoundment.
Stagflation and Nixon’s Mishap
By mid-1970, the economy was showing mild signs of inflation and unemployment was double that of what it was during LBJ’s administration. Nixon wanted to stem inflation, reduce unemployment, and maintain the exponential economic growth seen in the 1960s.
Nixon responded with a “high-employment standard,” which means the budget was designed to reflect an economy at full-employment. This is why Nixon’s budgets had deficits (i.e., $11 billion in 1971 and $25 billion in 1972). Nixon also froze wages for ninety days via the Economic Stabilization Act of 1970 and cancelled the gold standard.
This had a short-term effect on reducing inflation; however, it also resulted in a decade long period of stagflation – slow economic growth and high inflation.
OPEC Crisis – 1973
Angered by American support for Israel during the Fourth Arab-Israeli War (aka Yom Kippur War, October War, or Ramadan War), Arab members of OPEC (the Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries) imposed an embargo on oil shipments to the US creating a severe shock to the American economy. At the time, the US imported about one-third of its oil (today the US imports half its oil). As a result of the oil shortage, energy prices shot up and inflation hit 23% in 1974-1975. Unemployment reached 11% in 1975.
Moon Landing—1969
JFK started the nation on a race against the Soviets to the moon. The contest cost the US $25 billion.
In July of 1969, American Neil Armstrong became the first human to set foot on the moon. Six hundred million people watched on television, the largest audience in television history.
Silent Spring by Rachel Carson, 1962 (NOT in OpenStax)
Carson’s work focused on American’s use of DDT, an insecticide that had been used in US agriculture since the end of WWII. Carson, using more than fifty pages of scientific references, made it clear that DDT was potent, harmful to humans, and most importantly, harmful to the environment. JFK immediately appointed an advisory council to investigate DDT.
Carson sparked the modern environmental movement in the US.
Earth Day—1970
Spurred by two influential books, Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (which warned of the dangers of pesticides and industrial chemicals) and Paul Ehrlich’s The Population Bomb (which forecast environmental disaster as a result of population growth), 20 million Americans gathered in rallies, protests, and celebrations in April 1970. This growing environmental movement put pressure on Congress to pass major environmental legislation.
Environmental Protection (NOT in OpenStax)
National Environmental Policy Act—1969. This law requires federal agencies to prepare environmental impact statements for all proposed projects.
Environmental Protection Agency—1970. Created by consolidating several federal agencies, the EPA was given the responsibility for establishing and enforcing environmental standards regarding air pollution, water pollution, etc.
Clean Air Act—1970. This expanded previous air pollution laws to protect public health, in part by regulating auto emissions.
Endangered Species Act—1973. This law requires the federal government to identify species threatened with extinction and protect both those species and their habitat.
Norman Borlaug – (NOT in OpenStax)
Various reports suggested that the population boom in the mid-20th century could not be sustained by the world’s agricultural output. Borlaug, recruited by the Rockefeller Foundation’s Cooperative Agricultural Program in Mexico, developed disease resistance strains of wheat that could withstand harsh climate. He also developed a short-stemmed strain of wheat which increase crop yields. Following Mexico’s tripled crop production, India and Pakistan called for Borlaug’s assistance. His work in South Asia is estimated to have saved one billion lives from starvation.
Borlaug received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 and is considered the “Father of the Green Revolution;” however, his work in the mid-20th century can also be seen as another example of containment. If the US provides the means for countries to sustain their populations, and the USSR is not, then those countries (i.e., Mexico, India, Pakistan) will stay within the US’s sphere of influence.
Attica Prison Riot—1971 (NOT in OpenStax)
At Attica Prison in upstate New York, prisoners rioted, took guards prisoner, and demanded improved prison conditions, such as fresh food, a daily shower, and medical attention.
The standoff ended four days later when state police launched an all-out assault on orders from Governor Nelson Rockefeller. Forty-three people were killed, eleven of them prison guards, in the attack.
Nixon, the Diplomat
The Nixon Doctrine – 1969
With the Cold War still waging, but the consequences of the Vietnam War beginning to become apparent, Nixon declared the US would no longer fully support allies with ground troops. Rather than providing ground troops, the US would still provide economic and military (e.g., tanks, planes, guns, bombs, etc.) aid. Nixon also assured allies that the US would continue to use its nuclear arsenal to shield them from nuclear threats.
Nixon visits China – 1972
Since China had come under communist control in 1949, the US had refused China diplomatic recognition. Nixon recognized the tensions between China and the Soviet Union and sought to exploit those differences to America’s advantage. By establishing formal relations with the PRC, he hoped to drive a wedge between the two communist powers and play one against the other.
In 1972, Nixon, the man who had made his reputation as an implacable foe of communism, visited China and dined with Mao.
Allende Overthrown in Chile—1973 (NOT in OpenStax)
Salvador Allende, a socialist, was elected president of Chile in 1970. He proposed to nationalize several industries where American firms had invested heavily. In addition, his Marxist orientation worried a Nixon administration concerned about containing the spread of communism.
The CIA had failed to prevent Allende’s election. It next tried to weaken Chile’s economy to drive Allende from power. When that failed, the CIA supported a military coup that seized power, killed Allende, and initiated sixteen years of military dictatorship.
Détente
Détente means the reduction of tensions between two nations. Nixon’s trip to China initiated a period of détente with China. Nixon’s China trip was followed by a visit to the USSR where he signed trade and weapons agreements, again beginning a period of détente.
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I and II)—1972, 1979
SALT I was negotiated with the Soviets by President Nixon. It limited the number of antiballistic (defensive) missiles each side could have. This was based on the assumption that the threat of mutually assured destruction would ensure that neither side would launch a nuclear first strike. SALT I was seen as a positive result of détente.
SALT II, negotiated by President Carter, was intended to limit and eventually reduce the number of nuclear missiles (offensive) each side could possess. The Senate did not ratify this treaty, and when the Soviets invaded Afghanistan later that year, Carter withdrew the treaty from the Senate and instituted several anti-Soviet measures.
The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (NOT in OpenStax) - 1975
This was the first international space flight, where an Apollo spacecraft carrying a crew of three, met and docked with a Soyuz aircraft carrying a crew of two. This meeting would not only lay the foundations for the International Space Station, but it was the first joint-space test between former rivals: the US and USSR.
Mỹ Lai—1968
At Mỹ Lai, a village in Vietnam, US soldiers looking for Vietcong forces killed about 400 old people, women, and children. Although the military tried to hush up the story, it eventually came out. Lt. William Calley was convicted of murder and sentenced to life in prison; Richard Nixon pardoned him in 1974.
News of the massacre further reduced public support for the war.
Vietnamization
Nixon promised “peace with honor” throughout his administration. In 1968 he ran on a platform calling for Vietnamization in the Vietnam War. This was the policy of transferring the responsibility and direction of the war to the South Vietnam government.
Invasion and bombing of Cambodia – April, 1970
Despite Nixon promising Vietnamization, he ordered the secret invasion of Cambodia. He also intensified bombing campaigns of North Vietnam and Laos.
Kent State—1970
Following the news that Nixon had secretly expanded the Vietnam War into Cambodia, protests erupted on many college campuses. At Kent State, protestors threw rocks and firebombed the ROTC building. National Guard troops opened fire and killed four.
Pentagon Papers—1971
The Pentagon Papers were a 7,000-page secret history of the war in Vietnam compiled by the Defense Department. Daniel Ellsberg, a civilian employee of the Pentagon, copied the document and leaked it to the New York Times and Washington Post.
The Pentagon Papers showed the public that the government had systematically misled the nation about the nature and extent of US involvement in the war. The publication was one more factor weakening public support for the war.
New York Times v. United States
Nixon’s administration tried to stop the release of the Pentagon Papers and suggested their release would threaten national security.
In a 6-3 vote (two of three dissenters were Nixon appointees), the Supreme Court stated the Pentagon Papers were NOT intended to put the country’s national security at risk; instead, they were intended to educate the people about the war. Furthermore, preventing the writers of the NYT from publishing their work would be a direct violation of the first amendment.
War Powers Act—1973
Since 1964 presidents Johnson and Nixon had used the Tonkin Gulf Resolution as a basis for waging unlimited war in Vietnam. Seeking to limit the war and to reassert congressional power to declare war, Congress passed the War Powers Act.
This law allows the president to send troops into conflict without congressional authorization. However, those troops must be withdrawn in sixty days unless Congress authorizes a longer commitment.
The Paris Peace Accords
The Paris Peace Accords, officially known as “An Agreement Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam,” ended the Vietnam War between North Vietnam, South Vietnam, and the United States. The Accords effectively removed the US military from Vietnam, and the majority of U.S. POWs were released.
The End of the War in Vietnam
In 1973 the US and North Vietnam agreed to a cease-fire. The US was to withdraw its troops from South Vietnam though it could continue to send military aid. An election was set to determine future control of a united Vietnam.
In 1975 North Vietnam launched an offensive and the South Vietnamese forces quickly collapsed.
Watergate—1972-1974
Having barely lost the presidency in 1960 and having barely won it in 1968, Nixon surrounded himself with associates dedicated to making sure that Nixon won in 1972. Those associates authorized a variety of illegal activities, including the burglary of the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate office complex in 1972.
While there is no evidence that Nixon ordered or knew of the burglary in advance, he did order his associates to cover up any White House involvement, claiming initially that the burglary had been a CIA operation.
Saturday Night Massacre—1973
A special prosecutor, Archibald Cox, was appointed to investigate Watergate. When he sued the president to obtain Oval Office tapes, Nixon ordered Attorney General Elliott Richardson to fire Cox. Richardson refused and resigned, as did his assistant William Ruckelshaus. Finally, Solicitor General Robert Bork fired Cox.
The result was a firestorm of controversy as much of the nation assumed Nixon had something to hide. The House of Representatives began an impeachment investigation.
Executive Privilege
This is the doctrine that allows a president to refuse Congressional requests for documents, personal testimony, or testimony from the president’s aides. Without such executive privilege, Congress could control the executive branch and weaken the separation of powers.
In US v. Nixon, the Supreme Court ruled that executive privilege is valid but that it does not allow the president to withhold evidence in a criminal investigation. This decision required Nixon to turn over his tapes.
Spiro Agnew Resigns—1973
Agnew, Nixon’s vice president, had been the administration’s voice condemning lawlessness and disorder. He was found to have taken bribes and kickbacks on construction projects while he was governor of Maryland. Accused by prosecutors of political corruption, Agnew plea-bargained and pleaded no contest to income tax evasion in exchange for a sentence that included no jail time.
Ford Pardons Nixon—1974
Following Nixon’s resignation in August, there was serious consideration of indicting him for crimes relating to Watergate. Hoping to spare the nation the ordeal of several years of Watergate trials, President Ford issued Nixon a full pardon.
This pardon was highly unpopular with many Americans and contributed to Ford’s narrow loss to Jimmy Carter in 1976.
Carter: On the Inside (Jimmy Carter is still kicking at 94 years old! – The oldest living former President)
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke—1978 (NOT in OpenStax)
In this case, the Supreme Court declared that affirmative action programs may not impose a strict quota system but may use race, gender, or ethnicity as one factor in choosing among qualified applicants for college admission.
Love Canal (NOT in OpenStax)
This canal near Niagara Falls had been the site of chemical dumping for decades. By the late 1970s, residents were concerned about the toxins and their connection to cancer, birth defects, and other medical problems. In 1978 residents were relocated from the most contaminated areas. Love Canal became the nation’s first Superfund toxic waste cleanup project.
Three Mile Island—1979 (NOT in OpenStax)
A cooling system failure at a nuclear power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, led to the nation’s worst nuclear accident. Thousands were evacuated temporarily. Though some radiation was released, there were no deaths directly attributed to the leak. The effect of the accident was to deepen concerns about the safety of nuclear power. No new commercial plants have been ordered constructed since Three Mile Island.
Carter: Foreign Affairs
Panama Canal Treaty—1977
In this treaty negotiated by the Carter administration, the US pledged to return the Canal to Panama by the end of 1999. The treaty was very unpopular among conservatives such as Ronald Reagan who felt that America’s national interest should determine US foreign policy.
Camp David Accords—1978
To reduce tensions in the Middle East, Jimmy Carter invited Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin to the presidential retreat Camp David. Thirteen days of intense personal diplomacy followed, resulting in Israel’s agreement to return to Egypt land taken in the 1967 war and Egypt’s agreement to respect Israel’s borders.
Grain Embargo & Olympics Boycott—1980
When the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979 and set up a pro-communist government, Carter responded in several ways.
The US provided training to rebel forces fighting the Soviets—including a Saudi fundamentalist named Osama bin Laden who had come to Afghanistan to help free the Islamic state from foreign domination.
To express US displeasure, Carter also withdrew the US from the 1980 Olympics, which were held in Moscow. Moreover, he imposed an embargo on grain sales to Russia. The embargo angered American farmers.
US Hostages in Iran—1979
With the fall of the Shah, America’s ally, Islamic fundamentalists came to power in Iran. When Carter allowed the exiled Shah to enter the US for medical care, many Iranians feared a repetition of the CIA coup that had put the Shah on the throne in 1953.
In response, a group of Iranians seized the US embassy in Teheran and took a number of Americans hostage. They were held for 444 days and not released until the moment Carter left office. Carter’s inability to resolve the hostage crisis hurt his electoral chances against Ronald Reagan in the 1980 election.
Carter Doctrine – 1980
This doctrine, issued at Carter’s last State of the Union address in 1980, stated to allies that the US would return to its traditional foreign policy of containment of the USSR. Furthermore, any action against US allies in the Persian Gulf would be met by the full force of the US military. This was after the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in December 1979.
Mariel Boatlift—1980 (NOT in OpenStax)
The Carter administration agreed to allow 3500 political refugees from Cuba into the United States. Fidel Castro used this as an opportunity to rid the island of malcontents. Castro announced that those who wished to leave Cuba should gather at the port of Mariel near Havana. There they were picked up by boats from Florida. Those fleeing Cuba were not limited to political refugees; Castro used the opportunity to empty jails and insane asylums. Nor were the numbers limited to 3500; 125,000 Cubans flooded into Florida. Carter’s management of this event lost him support in the South.
The Moral Majority – 1979-1989
Founded by fundamentalist minister Jerry Falwell, the Moral Majority was a political action group designed to advance the concerns of conservative Christians: support for school prayer and the teaching of creationism; opposition to abortion, the Equal Rights Amendment, gay rights, and the SALT agreements.
Chapter 30: Political Storms at Home and Abroad, 1968-1980
The Counterculture
Insulated from want by a robust economy and dismayed by the war, racism, and materialism, many young people attempted to develop a new set of cultural values based on personal freedom, distrust of authority, a strong sense of community, and environmental awareness.
While drug use and sexual freedom received a good deal of media coverage, it is important to note that only a minority of young people were hippies.
American Indian Movement (AIM)
To dramatize their demands, AIM seized and occupied Alcatraz Island (a former federal prison) in 1969, the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Washington in 1972, and the town of Wounded Knee, South Dakota (site of the 1890 massacre) in 1973. The Wounded Knee protest led to a 71-day siege by federal marshals, but the issues which sparked the protests were not resolved.
Stonewall Riots—1969
In June 1969, a group of gay customers at the popular Stonewall Inn gay bar in New York angrily stood up against police harassment; a riot broke out. As word spread throughout the city, the customers of the inn were soon joined by other gay men and women. Police reinforcements arrived and dispersed the rioters, but the next night over 1000 demonstrators returned. For hours, protesters rioted outside the Stonewall Inn, and more demonstrations took place throughout the city in the following days.
After the riots, heated debates about civil rights were held among New York's LGBT community, leading to the formation of advocacy groups such as the Gay Liberation Front. The first gay pride parade in U.S. history took place on the first anniversary of the riots, near the Stonewall Inn in New York. Within two years gay rights groups had been started in nearly every major city in the United States.
Roe v. Wade—1973
Beginning in the late 1960s, some states began removing restrictions on abortion. In Roe, the Supreme Court ruled that a state can impose no restrictions on abortion during the first trimester of pregnancy and can ban abortion entirely in the last trimester.
Equal Rights Amendment Fails—1982
Congress approved a proposed constitutional amendment to ban discrimination based on gender in 1972 and sent it to the states. Thirty states voted for the amendment in the first year, but thirty-eight states were needed for final ratification, and increasing opposition to the ERA stalled its progress.
Opponents of the ERA led by Phyllis Schlafly charged that the amendment would lead to women in combat, the breakdown of the family, government funding of abortion, and elimination of separate bathrooms for men and women. Although Congress extended the deadline for ratification by three years, the ERA was only approved by thirty-five states.
Nixon’s Southern Strategy
Having won the 1968 election by a very narrow margin, Richard Nixon governed in his first term hoping to appeal to Wallace voters. His Southern strategy involved slowing down progress on civil rights, appointing conservatives to the federal courts, and criticizing the Left to appeal to the Silent Majority.
Dixiecrats
Also known as the States’ Rights Democrats, this was a right-wing Democratic splinter group that first appeared in the 1948 Presidential election. In the 1948, the Dixiecrats nominated Strom Thurmond of South Carolina. They received over a million votes and won SC, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. They dissolved after 1948; however, Northern Democrats referred to some Southern politicians as Dixiecrats until the 1990s.
The Dixiecrats supported States’ Rights for segregation in education and Jim Crow in political/economic segregation. They heavily opposed the Civil Rights Movement.
1968 Chicago Democratic Convention
Opposition to the war was so strong that LBJ decided not to run for reelection. Until his assassination, Robert Kennedy was perhaps the leading contender. With Kennedy gone, Johnson’s vice president Hubert Humphrey won the nomination at a Chicago convention marked by huge antiwar protests and police brutality.
Election of 1968
The Democrats nominated Hubert Humphrey during the violent Chicago Democratic convention.
The Republicans nominated Richard Nixon who pledged to end the war with honor but provided no details.
Independent George Wallace attacked crime, antiwar protestors, civil rights, and Washington bureaucrats. Wallace won 13% of the popular vote.
In a very tight race, Nixon defeated Humphrey.
The Domestic Nixon
Nixon on Civil Rights: An Enigma
Nixon was viewed as a racial conservative due to his 1968 Southern Strategy, his appeal to the Silent Majority, his references to law and order (viewed as oppressing minorities through crime), his nomination of southern conservatives to the Supreme Court, and his proposal of a constitutional amendment to ban school busing for school integration.
However, there are arguments suggesting Nixon was more moderate and even liberal with respect to civil rights. He signed various amendments in 1970 to amend the Civil Rights Act of 1965. This lowered the voting age to 18, which would become the basis for the 26th Amendment. He supported equal opportunity legislation, as well as an increase to affirmative action.
After the release of the tapes, though, it was discovered that Nixon was incredibly cynical and often made both anti-Semitic and racist comments.
New Federalism
Nixon’s administration redefined federalism in the US. Remember, federalism is the relationship between the central government and the states under the central government. New Federalism was the beginning of the federal government providing block grants to states to solve social issues.
Revenue Sharing (NOT in OpenStax)
During the Nixon years, Congress was controlled by the Democrats, who generally favored liberal social programs. Nixon advocated a program of revenue sharing—sending federal tax dollars to local governments. Nixon assumed that local governments would spend the money on more conservative causes, e.g., law enforcement. In addition, sending this money out of Washington would reduce the amount available for Congress to spend on liberal programs.
Impoundment (NOT in OpenStax)
Nixon also sought to limit spending on liberal social programs through impoundment, that is, by refusing to spend money appropriated by Congress. The president’s power to impound funds was limited by the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Act of 1974, which required congressional acquiescence in any such impoundment.
Stagflation and Nixon’s Mishap
By mid-1970, the economy was showing mild signs of inflation and unemployment was double that of what it was during LBJ’s administration. Nixon wanted to stem inflation, reduce unemployment, and maintain the exponential economic growth seen in the 1960s.
Nixon responded with a “high-employment standard,” which means the budget was designed to reflect an economy at full-employment. This is why Nixon’s budgets had deficits (i.e., $11 billion in 1971 and $25 billion in 1972). Nixon also froze wages for ninety days via the Economic Stabilization Act of 1970 and cancelled the gold standard.
This had a short-term effect on reducing inflation; however, it also resulted in a decade long period of stagflation – slow economic growth and high inflation.
OPEC Crisis – 1973
Angered by American support for Israel during the Fourth Arab-Israeli War (aka Yom Kippur War, October War, or Ramadan War), Arab members of OPEC (the Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries) imposed an embargo on oil shipments to the US creating a severe shock to the American economy. At the time, the US imported about one-third of its oil (today the US imports half its oil). As a result of the oil shortage, energy prices shot up and inflation hit 23% in 1974-1975. Unemployment reached 11% in 1975.
Moon Landing—1969
JFK started the nation on a race against the Soviets to the moon. The contest cost the US $25 billion.
In July of 1969, American Neil Armstrong became the first human to set foot on the moon. Six hundred million people watched on television, the largest audience in television history.
Silent Spring by Rachel Carson, 1962 (NOT in OpenStax)
Carson’s work focused on American’s use of DDT, an insecticide that had been used in US agriculture since the end of WWII. Carson, using more than fifty pages of scientific references, made it clear that DDT was potent, harmful to humans, and most importantly, harmful to the environment. JFK immediately appointed an advisory council to investigate DDT.
Carson sparked the modern environmental movement in the US.
Earth Day—1970
Spurred by two influential books, Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (which warned of the dangers of pesticides and industrial chemicals) and Paul Ehrlich’s The Population Bomb (which forecast environmental disaster as a result of population growth), 20 million Americans gathered in rallies, protests, and celebrations in April 1970. This growing environmental movement put pressure on Congress to pass major environmental legislation.
Environmental Protection (NOT in OpenStax)
National Environmental Policy Act—1969. This law requires federal agencies to prepare environmental impact statements for all proposed projects.
Environmental Protection Agency—1970. Created by consolidating several federal agencies, the EPA was given the responsibility for establishing and enforcing environmental standards regarding air pollution, water pollution, etc.
Clean Air Act—1970. This expanded previous air pollution laws to protect public health, in part by regulating auto emissions.
Endangered Species Act—1973. This law requires the federal government to identify species threatened with extinction and protect both those species and their habitat.
Norman Borlaug – (NOT in OpenStax)
Various reports suggested that the population boom in the mid-20th century could not be sustained by the world’s agricultural output. Borlaug, recruited by the Rockefeller Foundation’s Cooperative Agricultural Program in Mexico, developed disease resistance strains of wheat that could withstand harsh climate. He also developed a short-stemmed strain of wheat which increase crop yields. Following Mexico’s tripled crop production, India and Pakistan called for Borlaug’s assistance. His work in South Asia is estimated to have saved one billion lives from starvation.
Borlaug received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 and is considered the “Father of the Green Revolution;” however, his work in the mid-20th century can also be seen as another example of containment. If the US provides the means for countries to sustain their populations, and the USSR is not, then those countries (i.e., Mexico, India, Pakistan) will stay within the US’s sphere of influence.
Attica Prison Riot—1971 (NOT in OpenStax)
At Attica Prison in upstate New York, prisoners rioted, took guards prisoner, and demanded improved prison conditions, such as fresh food, a daily shower, and medical attention.
The standoff ended four days later when state police launched an all-out assault on orders from Governor Nelson Rockefeller. Forty-three people were killed, eleven of them prison guards, in the attack.
Nixon, the Diplomat
The Nixon Doctrine – 1969
With the Cold War still waging, but the consequences of the Vietnam War beginning to become apparent, Nixon declared the US would no longer fully support allies with ground troops. Rather than providing ground troops, the US would still provide economic and military (e.g., tanks, planes, guns, bombs, etc.) aid. Nixon also assured allies that the US would continue to use its nuclear arsenal to shield them from nuclear threats.
Nixon visits China – 1972
Since China had come under communist control in 1949, the US had refused China diplomatic recognition. Nixon recognized the tensions between China and the Soviet Union and sought to exploit those differences to America’s advantage. By establishing formal relations with the PRC, he hoped to drive a wedge between the two communist powers and play one against the other.
In 1972, Nixon, the man who had made his reputation as an implacable foe of communism, visited China and dined with Mao.
Allende Overthrown in Chile—1973 (NOT in OpenStax)
Salvador Allende, a socialist, was elected president of Chile in 1970. He proposed to nationalize several industries where American firms had invested heavily. In addition, his Marxist orientation worried a Nixon administration concerned about containing the spread of communism.
The CIA had failed to prevent Allende’s election. It next tried to weaken Chile’s economy to drive Allende from power. When that failed, the CIA supported a military coup that seized power, killed Allende, and initiated sixteen years of military dictatorship.
Détente
Détente means the reduction of tensions between two nations. Nixon’s trip to China initiated a period of détente with China. Nixon’s China trip was followed by a visit to the USSR where he signed trade and weapons agreements, again beginning a period of détente.
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I and II)—1972, 1979
SALT I was negotiated with the Soviets by President Nixon. It limited the number of antiballistic (defensive) missiles each side could have. This was based on the assumption that the threat of mutually assured destruction would ensure that neither side would launch a nuclear first strike. SALT I was seen as a positive result of détente.
SALT II, negotiated by President Carter, was intended to limit and eventually reduce the number of nuclear missiles (offensive) each side could possess. The Senate did not ratify this treaty, and when the Soviets invaded Afghanistan later that year, Carter withdrew the treaty from the Senate and instituted several anti-Soviet measures.
The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (NOT in OpenStax) - 1975
This was the first international space flight, where an Apollo spacecraft carrying a crew of three, met and docked with a Soyuz aircraft carrying a crew of two. This meeting would not only lay the foundations for the International Space Station, but it was the first joint-space test between former rivals: the US and USSR.
Mỹ Lai—1968
At Mỹ Lai, a village in Vietnam, US soldiers looking for Vietcong forces killed about 400 old people, women, and children. Although the military tried to hush up the story, it eventually came out. Lt. William Calley was convicted of murder and sentenced to life in prison; Richard Nixon pardoned him in 1974.
News of the massacre further reduced public support for the war.
Vietnamization
Nixon promised “peace with honor” throughout his administration. In 1968 he ran on a platform calling for Vietnamization in the Vietnam War. This was the policy of transferring the responsibility and direction of the war to the South Vietnam government.
Invasion and bombing of Cambodia – April, 1970
Despite Nixon promising Vietnamization, he ordered the secret invasion of Cambodia. He also intensified bombing campaigns of North Vietnam and Laos.
Kent State—1970
Following the news that Nixon had secretly expanded the Vietnam War into Cambodia, protests erupted on many college campuses. At Kent State, protestors threw rocks and firebombed the ROTC building. National Guard troops opened fire and killed four.
Pentagon Papers—1971
The Pentagon Papers were a 7,000-page secret history of the war in Vietnam compiled by the Defense Department. Daniel Ellsberg, a civilian employee of the Pentagon, copied the document and leaked it to the New York Times and Washington Post.
The Pentagon Papers showed the public that the government had systematically misled the nation about the nature and extent of US involvement in the war. The publication was one more factor weakening public support for the war.
New York Times v. United States
Nixon’s administration tried to stop the release of the Pentagon Papers and suggested their release would threaten national security.
In a 6-3 vote (two of three dissenters were Nixon appointees), the Supreme Court stated the Pentagon Papers were NOT intended to put the country’s national security at risk; instead, they were intended to educate the people about the war. Furthermore, preventing the writers of the NYT from publishing their work would be a direct violation of the first amendment.
War Powers Act—1973
Since 1964 presidents Johnson and Nixon had used the Tonkin Gulf Resolution as a basis for waging unlimited war in Vietnam. Seeking to limit the war and to reassert congressional power to declare war, Congress passed the War Powers Act.
This law allows the president to send troops into conflict without congressional authorization. However, those troops must be withdrawn in sixty days unless Congress authorizes a longer commitment.
The Paris Peace Accords
The Paris Peace Accords, officially known as “An Agreement Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam,” ended the Vietnam War between North Vietnam, South Vietnam, and the United States. The Accords effectively removed the US military from Vietnam, and the majority of U.S. POWs were released.
The End of the War in Vietnam
In 1973 the US and North Vietnam agreed to a cease-fire. The US was to withdraw its troops from South Vietnam though it could continue to send military aid. An election was set to determine future control of a united Vietnam.
In 1975 North Vietnam launched an offensive and the South Vietnamese forces quickly collapsed.
Watergate—1972-1974
Having barely lost the presidency in 1960 and having barely won it in 1968, Nixon surrounded himself with associates dedicated to making sure that Nixon won in 1972. Those associates authorized a variety of illegal activities, including the burglary of the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate office complex in 1972.
While there is no evidence that Nixon ordered or knew of the burglary in advance, he did order his associates to cover up any White House involvement, claiming initially that the burglary had been a CIA operation.
Saturday Night Massacre—1973
A special prosecutor, Archibald Cox, was appointed to investigate Watergate. When he sued the president to obtain Oval Office tapes, Nixon ordered Attorney General Elliott Richardson to fire Cox. Richardson refused and resigned, as did his assistant William Ruckelshaus. Finally, Solicitor General Robert Bork fired Cox.
The result was a firestorm of controversy as much of the nation assumed Nixon had something to hide. The House of Representatives began an impeachment investigation.
Executive Privilege
This is the doctrine that allows a president to refuse Congressional requests for documents, personal testimony, or testimony from the president’s aides. Without such executive privilege, Congress could control the executive branch and weaken the separation of powers.
In US v. Nixon, the Supreme Court ruled that executive privilege is valid but that it does not allow the president to withhold evidence in a criminal investigation. This decision required Nixon to turn over his tapes.
Spiro Agnew Resigns—1973
Agnew, Nixon’s vice president, had been the administration’s voice condemning lawlessness and disorder. He was found to have taken bribes and kickbacks on construction projects while he was governor of Maryland. Accused by prosecutors of political corruption, Agnew plea-bargained and pleaded no contest to income tax evasion in exchange for a sentence that included no jail time.
Ford Pardons Nixon—1974
Following Nixon’s resignation in August, there was serious consideration of indicting him for crimes relating to Watergate. Hoping to spare the nation the ordeal of several years of Watergate trials, President Ford issued Nixon a full pardon.
This pardon was highly unpopular with many Americans and contributed to Ford’s narrow loss to Jimmy Carter in 1976.
Carter: On the Inside (Jimmy Carter is still kicking at 94 years old! – The oldest living former President)
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke—1978 (NOT in OpenStax)
In this case, the Supreme Court declared that affirmative action programs may not impose a strict quota system but may use race, gender, or ethnicity as one factor in choosing among qualified applicants for college admission.
Love Canal (NOT in OpenStax)
This canal near Niagara Falls had been the site of chemical dumping for decades. By the late 1970s, residents were concerned about the toxins and their connection to cancer, birth defects, and other medical problems. In 1978 residents were relocated from the most contaminated areas. Love Canal became the nation’s first Superfund toxic waste cleanup project.
Three Mile Island—1979 (NOT in OpenStax)
A cooling system failure at a nuclear power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, led to the nation’s worst nuclear accident. Thousands were evacuated temporarily. Though some radiation was released, there were no deaths directly attributed to the leak. The effect of the accident was to deepen concerns about the safety of nuclear power. No new commercial plants have been ordered constructed since Three Mile Island.
Carter: Foreign Affairs
Panama Canal Treaty—1977
In this treaty negotiated by the Carter administration, the US pledged to return the Canal to Panama by the end of 1999. The treaty was very unpopular among conservatives such as Ronald Reagan who felt that America’s national interest should determine US foreign policy.
Camp David Accords—1978
To reduce tensions in the Middle East, Jimmy Carter invited Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin to the presidential retreat Camp David. Thirteen days of intense personal diplomacy followed, resulting in Israel’s agreement to return to Egypt land taken in the 1967 war and Egypt’s agreement to respect Israel’s borders.
Grain Embargo & Olympics Boycott—1980
When the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979 and set up a pro-communist government, Carter responded in several ways.
The US provided training to rebel forces fighting the Soviets—including a Saudi fundamentalist named Osama bin Laden who had come to Afghanistan to help free the Islamic state from foreign domination.
To express US displeasure, Carter also withdrew the US from the 1980 Olympics, which were held in Moscow. Moreover, he imposed an embargo on grain sales to Russia. The embargo angered American farmers.
US Hostages in Iran—1979
With the fall of the Shah, America’s ally, Islamic fundamentalists came to power in Iran. When Carter allowed the exiled Shah to enter the US for medical care, many Iranians feared a repetition of the CIA coup that had put the Shah on the throne in 1953.
In response, a group of Iranians seized the US embassy in Teheran and took a number of Americans hostage. They were held for 444 days and not released until the moment Carter left office. Carter’s inability to resolve the hostage crisis hurt his electoral chances against Ronald Reagan in the 1980 election.
Carter Doctrine – 1980
This doctrine, issued at Carter’s last State of the Union address in 1980, stated to allies that the US would return to its traditional foreign policy of containment of the USSR. Furthermore, any action against US allies in the Persian Gulf would be met by the full force of the US military. This was after the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in December 1979.
Mariel Boatlift—1980 (NOT in OpenStax)
The Carter administration agreed to allow 3500 political refugees from Cuba into the United States. Fidel Castro used this as an opportunity to rid the island of malcontents. Castro announced that those who wished to leave Cuba should gather at the port of Mariel near Havana. There they were picked up by boats from Florida. Those fleeing Cuba were not limited to political refugees; Castro used the opportunity to empty jails and insane asylums. Nor were the numbers limited to 3500; 125,000 Cubans flooded into Florida. Carter’s management of this event lost him support in the South.
The Moral Majority – 1979-1989
Founded by fundamentalist minister Jerry Falwell, the Moral Majority was a political action group designed to advance the concerns of conservative Christians: support for school prayer and the teaching of creationism; opposition to abortion, the Equal Rights Amendment, gay rights, and the SALT agreements.
