S1 Revision

Bone Types and Functions

• Patella

  • Type: Sesamoid

  • Function: Protects tendons and increases leverage

• Humerus

  • Type: Long

  • Function: Most important for movement

• Carpals

  • Type: Short

  • Function: Support and stabilize

• Vertebrae

  • Type: Irregular

  • Function: Specialized shapes and functions

• Sternum

  • Type: Flat

  • Function: Protection and muscle attachment

Axial vs. Appendicular Skeleton

• Axial Skeleton:

  • Consists of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage.

  • Supports and protects vital organs.

• Appendicular Skeleton:

  • Consists of limbs and girdles.

  • Enables movement.

Synovial Joints

• Ball and Socket

  • Example: Shoulder / Hip

  • Movement Allowed: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction

• Hinge

  • Example: Knee / Elbow

  • Movement Allowed: Flexion and extension (in one plane)

• Pivot

  • Example: Atlas and axis (neck)

  • Movement Allowed: Bone rotation about another bone

• Saddle

  • Example: Thumb (carpometacarpal)

  • Movement Allowed: Flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction, circumduction

Flexion vs. Extension

• Flexion: Bending of a joint, decreasing the angle between bones.

• Extension: Straightening of a joint, increasing the angle.

Functions of the Skeletal System

• Support and maintain posture

• Protection

• Movement – bones provide an attachment point for muscles

• Mineral storage – such as calcium and phosphorus

• Blood cell production (hematopoiesis)

• Energy storage (lipids in yellow bone marrow)

Muscles in Antagonistic Pairs

• Muscles work in pairs: when one contracts (agonist), the other relaxes (antagonist).

• Example: In a bicep curl, the biceps contract while the triceps relax.

• Agonist: Muscle that contracts to cause movement.

• Antagonist: Muscle that relaxes to allow movement.

Types of Muscle

• Skeletal:

  • Voluntary

  • Striated

  • Attached to bones for movement

• Smooth:

  • Involuntary

  • Found in organs like intestines and blood vessels.

• Cardiac:

  • Involuntary

  • Striated

  • Found only in the heart.

Biomechanics

• Definition: The study of mechanical principles applied to human movement and sport performance

Types of Motion

• Linear:

  • Description: Movement in a straight line

  • Sport Example: 100m sprint

• Angular:

  • Description: Movement around an axis

  • Sport Example: Gymnast swinging on bar

• General:

  • Description: Combination of linear and angular

  • Sport Example: Cycling

Factors Affecting Stability

• Centre of Mass

• Base of Support

• Line of gravity

Impact of Centre of Mass on Performance

• The centre of mass affects balance and control

• A lower centre of mass for a gymnast increases stability

• In gymnastics, keeping the centre of mass aligned over the base of support helps the gymnast maintain balance on the beam

Newton’s Laws of Motion

• First Law (Law of Inertia):

  • An object in motion will remain in motion unless acted upon by a net force.

  • Football Example: The ball will stay in place until someone kicks it; the ball will continue in motion unless acted on by the grass/ gravity/ player.

• Second Law (Law of Acceleration):

  • Force equals mass multiplied by acceleration (f=ma).

  • The acceleration (for a body/ object of constant mass) is proportional to, and in the same direction as, the unbalanced force applied to it.

  • Football Example: The greater the force applied during the kick, the further the ball will fly.

• Third Law (Law of Action-Reaction):

  • To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

  • Football Example: When jumping, the athlete pushes against the ground, the ground pushes back with an equal force.

Factors Affecting Projectile Motion

• Angle of Release

  • Explanation: The angle at which the object is projected influences the shape and distance of the trajectory.

  • Basketball Example: A free throw is best released at an optimal angle (typically around 45°) to allow the ball to arc into the hoop.

• Speed(or velocity) of Release

  • Explanation: The greater the release speed results in greater horizontal and vertical displacement, affecting the distance of the projectile.

  • Basketball Example: A player must apply enough force to give the ball the correct speed to reach the hoop from the free throw line.

• Height of Release

  • Explanation: The relative height from which the object is released compared to where it lands alters flight time and trajectory.

  • Basketball Example: If the ball is released from above the height of the hoop (e.g., tall player or jump shot), it affects the trajectory.

Impact of Gravity on Projectile Motion

• Gravity is the downward force acting upon a projectile that influences its vertical motion and causes the parabolic trajectory that is characteristic of projectiles.

Sport Psychology

A. Personality

• Definition: The relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals which distinguish them from other people, making them unique but at the same time permit a comparison between individuals

• Social Learning Theory:

  • Suggests behaviour is learned by observing and imitating others, especially role models.

  • Example: A young footballer copies the technique of a professional player they watch on TV

• Interactionist Approach:

  • States personality is a result of both inherited traits and environmental influences.

  • Example: A player who is usually calm becomes aggressive in high-pressure games due to crowd influence or team expectations.

B. Goal Setting

• Process Goals:

  • Focuses on technique or actions required to perform a skill.

  • Example: “Keep my elbow high during my basketball shot.”

• Performance Goal:

  • Related to personal standards of performance, not compared to others.

  • Example: “Improve my 100m sprint time from 13s to 12.5s.”

• Outcome Goal:

  • Focuses on the end result or comparison with others.

  • Example: “Win the final match of the tournament.”

• Benefits of Using Process Goals Over Outcome Goals:

  • Process goals are within the athlete’s control and can improve focus and technique.

  • They reduce pressure linked to winning and can build confidence through small successes.

  • Outcome goals may depend on others (e.g., opponent’s performance), which can create anxiety.

C. Motivation

• Definition: Motivation is the internal or external drive to achieve a goal.

• Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Rewards:

  • Intrinsic = motivation from within (e.g., enjoyment);

  • Extrinsic = motivation from external rewards (e.g., trophies)

  • Two intrinsic examples: pride in improvement, love for the game.

  • Two extrinsic examples: medals, praise from coach.

• Impact of Extrinsic Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation:

  • Extrinsic rewards can enhance motivation if they reinforce effort or skill improvement.

  • But they can undermine intrinsic motivation if overused or if athletes become focused only on rewards, not enjoyment.

D. Stress, Arousal and Anxiety

• Stress Definition: A response to a perceived challenge or threat, which can be physical or psychological

• Arousal Definition: A state of physical and mental alertness or readiness for action, ranging from deep sleep to intense excitement

• Anxiety Definition: A negative emotional state involving worry, nervousness, and apprehension, often with physiological symptoms

• Inverted-U Theory:

  • The inverted-U theory suggests performance improves with arousal to an optimal point, then decreases if arousal becomes too high.

  • Too little arousal = underperformance; too much = anxiety, mistakes.

  • Application: In archery, too little arousal can cause lack of focus; too much may cause shaking or poor aim.

• Cognitive vs. Somatic Anxiety:

  • Cognitive anxiety is psychological—worry, negative thoughts.

  • Somatic anxiety is physiological—sweating, increased heart rate

• Trait vs. State Anxiety:

  • Trait anxiety is a personality characteristic—tendency to perceive situations as threatening.

  • State anxiety is a temporary response to a specific situation, such as an important competition

E. Anxiety Tests

• Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT):

  • Purpose: Used to evaluate how likely an athlete is to experience anxiety in competitive settings. It measures trait anxiety

  • Limitations:

    • Does not measure state anxiety:

    • Self-report bias

• Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2):

  • Purpose: Used to assess an athlete’s anxiety just before a competition to see how it affects their performance. It measures cognitive Anxiety, somatic anxiety and self- confidence

  • Limitations:

    • The results depend heavily on when the test is taken.

    • Self-report bias

F. Psychological Skills Training

• Psychological Skills Training (PST) Definition: Psychological Skills Training (PST) in sport is the systematic practice of mental skills to enhance performance, enjoyment, and self-satisfaction, often focusing on techniques like goal-setting, self -talk, imagery and relaxation

• PST Techniques:

  • Progressive Muscle Relaxation: A technique that involves tensing and relaxing specific muscles. It develops the athlete’s awareness of the difference between tension and relaxation.

  • Breathing Techniques: Learned ways of breathing in a deep, calm, and focused way to promote relaxation

  • Imagery: The mental practice of visualizing movements, techniques, and/or successful performance to enhance skills, focus, and confidence in competition.

• Benefits of Imagery for Athletes:

  • Imagery helps athletes mentally rehearse movements or strategies before performance, improving focus and readiness.

  • Imagery can enhance confidence, reduce anxiety, and help athletes stay composed under pressure during competition