AP Government Big Ideas and Outline

Unit 1 Big Ideas:

1. Our foundational governing documents are influenced by Enlightenment thinking 

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• Natural Rights - [Declaration of Independence] 

• Popular Sovereignty - [Declaration of Independence] 

• Social Contract - [Declaration of Independence] 

• Republicanism - [Constitution] Separation of powers, Checks and Balances, Checks Against Tyranny

2. Different models of democracy are visible in our nation and its policies

• Participatory - [Brutus 1, AOC, State power. Fed 10, Liberties upheld due to the large number of factions.] As many people as possible participate in the political process, states create their laws as long as they don't conflict with federal laws due to the supremacy clause

• Elite - As little people participating in the political process, representatives are elected to represent the people 

• Pluralist - Groups of people associated with interest groups that compete to influence public policy and legislation require compromise from various groups of varying interests

3. Federalists and anti-federalists argued over the proper scope of federal power

• Federalists - Strong Central Government, Federalist papers (Fed 10: Mitigate effects of factions)

• Anti-Federalists - Weak Central Government, Strong State Governments (Avoid Monarchy, Clauses disliked by Brutus 1: Necessary and proper clause and Supremacy Clause)

4. AOC failed because federal power was too weak and state power was too great

• No Exec branch, no Judicial branch, only legislative (Congress)

• Unanimous agreement to amend

• No power in Congress to raise an army

• Shays' Rebellion convinced a lot of people that the AOC was not a sufficient governing document, as there was no army to put down the rebellion

5. The US Constitution was created and ratified as a result of several compromises between federalists and anti-federalists

• Constitution - Bundle of compromises: Great compromise (Connecticut Compromise) Representation in Government, Bicameral legislature. Electoral College. ⅗ Compromised, enslaved population representation

  • Article 5: Constitutional amendments: Proposal (states or congress) and Ratification (¾ of state legislatures have to agree to the amendment)

6. The US Constitution lays out a system of government characterized by separation of powers and checks and balances

• Fed 51: Separation of powers and checks and balances, and how those mechanisms control abuses of power by majorities (branches of government have to work as independently as possible, but have to have powers to check the other branches)

7. Our system of government is based on federalism, and the sharing of power is affected by societal needs

• Federalism: The sharing of power between national and state governments

• Exclusive powers: Powers delegated by the Constitution to the federal government (what the government is responsible for, Article 1, Section 8)

• Reserved powers: powers that belong only to the states (10th amendment; anything not explicitly written in Article 1, Section 8 is reserved to the states)

• Concurrent powers: Powers shared by the Federal and State governments (Federalism)

• Grants: 

  • Categorical grants: Grants given to states with strings attached

  • Block grants: Grants given to states with very few strings attached

• Fiscal Federalism: Mandates (Laws that require states to follow federal directives, but often are beyond the  state budget, so the government gives funds towards those mandates) 

8. The balance of power between states and the federal government has changed over time, and at the heart of that balancing act are a few constitutional provisions and 2 SCOTUS (Supreme Court of the US) Cases

• 10th Amendment: Reserved powers

• 14th Amendment: Applies Bill of Rights to the States

• Commerce Clause: allows Congress to regulate commerce among the states

• Necessary and proper clause (elastic clause): Congress can make any law that upholds its enumerated powers, even if that law isn't specifically mentioned in Article 1, Section 8 (ex. Alexander Hamilton’s National Bank)

• McCullough v. Maryland: Win for Federal Power

• US v. Lopez: Win for State Power

Unit 2 Big Ideas:

1. The main work of Congress is to make Laws

• Article 1, Section 8, Enumerated powers, Implied powers (Necessary and proper clause)

• Bicameral Legislature, 535 members

2. The leadership structures of Congress and the committee system are the main avenues through which Congress does its work

• House of Representatives structure:

• Speaker of the House

• Majority and Minority Leaders

• Maj. and Min. Whip

• Senate Structure:

• President of the Senate (Vice President of US, non-voting member, tie breaker)

• President Pro-Tempore (Vice President Replacement when they’re not present)

• Senate Maj. Leader: Sets legislative agenda

• Whips

• Committee system: Standing committees (always there), Joint committees (House and Senate combined committee), Select committees (temporary for a specific purpose), Conference committees (Hash out bills that are unagreeable by both legislatures)

• Riders (Germaine (relevant), Non-Germaine (not relevant) add provisions to bills to benefit a member's own agenda or help a bill get passed

• Pork barrel spending: funds that are earmarked for special projects in a representative’s district

• Logrolling

• National Budget

• National Income comes from income tax 

• Mandatory Spending: payments required by law (Social Security)

• Discretionary Spending: money left over from Mandatory spending

3. The efficiency with which Congress does its work is affected by ideological divisions, differing conceptions of representation, and redistricting/gerrymandering

• Political Polarization: Continuing polarization causes negotiation and compromise to be exceedingly difficult (Gridlock)

• Trustee Model: Rep. has been trusted to vote with the Rep.’s best judgment 

• Delegate Model: Vote with the will of the people

• Politico Model: Blend of Both

• Redistricting/Gerrymandering: The Census requires redrawing of Districts based on population. 

• Baker v. Carr: Minority of voters had a Majority of the power, Violated the 14th Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause, 1 person, 1 vote principle

• Shaw v. Reno: Redistricting gone wrong (gerrymandering), 2 districts drawn to create majority African american districts, Drawing districts based on race deemed unconstitutional based on the 14th Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause

4. The president has no constitutional law-making power, the president uses formal/informal powers to get the presidential policy agenda passed

• Formal Powers: Article 2 of the Constitution (Veto)

• Formal Policy: Commander in Chief, however, Congress has the power to declare war

• Informal Powers: Bargaining and persuasion (Speeches, Bully Pulpit, Forms of Communication to persuade the public to put pressure on their representatives in Congress to pass laws that align with the president’s policy agenda), Executive orders (Directs the actions of the Federal bureaucracy)

5. Exercise of presidential power can often lead to conflicts with the power of other branches of government, but those other branches have means of checking the president’s power

• Presidential appointments: Senate approves or denies appointments

• Federal Court Nominations

6. Presidential power has grown significantly over time

• Fed 70: Single executive

• George Washington

• Andrew Jackson

• Abe Lincoln 

• FDR

7. Because of their unique command of the attention of Americans, presidents have often used new communication technologies to appeal directly to the people

8. The Supreme Court checks the other branches of government through the power of judicial review

• Fed 78: Independence of the Judiciary acted as a protection for their power, Lifetime appointments, the Court had the right and power of Judicial Review

• Marbury v. Madison: Established the court’s main power of judicial review 

• Structure: US District Courts -> US Circuit Court of Appeals -> US Supreme Court

• Cases work their way up the ladder

9. The combination of the court’s exercise of judicial review and the life tenure of judges leads some to question the legitimacy of the Court

• Precedents: Starre decisis “let the decision stand”

• Legitimacy of the court: controversial SCOTUS decisions can lead to a questioning of the court's Legitimacy

• Roe v. Wade

• Dobbs v. Jackson (Roe v. Wade overturned)

• Judicial Activism: Court acts to enact/establish policy

• Judicial Restraint: Laws should be struck down if they violate the written words of the Constitution

10. The federal Bureaucracy carries out the responsibilities of the federal government under the authority of the executive branch

• Federal Bureaucracy: (4th-ish branch of government) Departments, Agencies, Commissions, Government Corporations. Write and Enforce Regulations

• Iron Triangle: Agencies - Committees - Interest Groups

11. The federal bureaucracy uses delegated discretionary authority for rule-making and implementation

• Delegated Discretionary Authority: Authority given to the Bureaucracy by Congress that gives the agencies discretion on how to make rules and how to carry out laws

• Agencies: Dept. of Homeland Security, Dept. of Transportation, Dept. of Veterans Affairs, Dept. of Education, Environmental Protection Agency, Federal Elections Commission, Securities and Exchange Commission

12. The Bureaucracy can be checked by other branches of the federal government

• Bureaucracy = the enforcing tool of the executive branch

• Power can be checked through Congressional Oversight, Power of the Purse, Presidential Checks, and Judicial Checks in Court

Unit 3 Big Ideas: 

1. The Bill of Rights protects Individual Liberties

• BoR originally meant to protect individuals from the federal government

• Public Interest vs. Personal Freedom

• Liberties outlined in BoR are not absolute

2. The Supreme Court has engaged in an ongoing debate over the First Amendment’s protection of freedom of religion, centered on balancing majoritarian religious practices and free exercise

• Establishment Clause

• Free Exercise Clause  

• Engel v. Vitale: School-led prayer in public schools violated the Establishment Clause

• Wisconsin v. Yoder: Continuing Education after 8th grade violated Amish religious beliefs under the Free Exercise Clause

3. 1st Amendment’s protection of freedom of speech is not absolute, but to restrict speech, the government has a high bar to reach

• Tinker v. De Moins 

• Speech can be restricted, but a high bar to reach: Time, Place, Manner regulations

• Schenk v. US: clear and present danger test

4. The 1st Amendment’s protection of the freedom of the press is essential to the working of a democracy

• NYT v. US: “Pentagon Papers” Freedom of the press, Prize for national security, doesn't justify prior restraint

5. The Supreme Court’s Interpretation of the Second Amendment has almost always upheld an individual’s right to own a gun

• District of Columbia v. Heller 

6. None of the rights in the Bill of Rights are absolute. Each right is always a balancing act between individual liberty, public order, and safety

• 8th Amendment: Cruel and Unusual Punishment (Death Penalty)

• Second Amendment/Fourth Amendment: Does the collection of Metadata and Gun Regulation interfere with or promote Public Safety and Individual Rights

• US Patriot Act

7. Selective Incorporation applies the protections of the Bill of Rights to the states through the 14th Amendment’s Due Process Clause

• 14th Amendment’s Due Process Clause: “No State shall abridge the rights of US citizens…” Allows Bill of Rights to protect Citizens from State Governments too, but through the process of Selective Incorporation

• Selective Incorporation: The process of applying certain civil liberties to the states as they are worked out through SCOTUS Cases (1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 8th amendments)

• McDonald v. Chicago: Decision from D.C v. Heller should extend the protections of the 2nd Amendment to the states via the 14th Amendment

8. In trying to balance personal liberty and public order, the court at times has ruled to restrict individual liberty and at other times upheld individual liberty

• Miranda v. Arizona: established the Miranda rule (Upholds the 5th amendment: protection against being compelled to be a witness against yourself). Example of Procedural Due Process (Read Miranda Rights)

• Gideon v. Wainwright: 6th Amendment (Accused must have a lawyer); however, it doesn't apply to states until it reaches SCOTUS, which deems the 6th Amendment applies to all states through the 14th Amendment’s Due Process Clause

• Right to Privacy: ex. Roe v. Wade

9. Constitutional Provisions have inspired and supported social movements

• Civil Liberties: Freedoms Guaranteed by the Constitution (Freedoms)

• Civil Rights: Push/Process by Which all Citizens are equally protected by those Freedoms/Liberties (Making Sure Everybody Gets Access to Those Freedoms)

• The Civil Rights Movement of the Mid-20th Century was inspired by the 14th Amendment

• Letter From A Birmingham Jail: MLK's response from Jail addressed to the white Clergy of Alabama who urged him to “wait patiently” and not to protest

10. The SCOTUS has at times allowed the restriction of civil rights of minority groups and at other times has protected those rights

• Brown v. Board of Education

• Voting Rights Act of 1965: Made Voting Discrimination Illegal in the US

• Civil Rights Act

• Title 9: Upheld Women’s Rights

Unit 4 Big Ideas:

1. Americans’ relationship to core American Beliefs, which are shared by nearly every American, affects how they think about the role of government

• Individualism: Conservative: Self-Centered, Individual interests above Societal Interests. Liberal: “Enlightened Individualism” Interest of the Group over the Interest of the Individual

• Equality of Opportunity

• Free Enterprise

• Rule of Law

• Limited Government

• Depending on Political Ideology, each person thinks and applies these differently

• Liberal - Conservative

2. Cultural Factors Influence Political Attitudes and Socialization

• Political Socialization: Different Factors influence how people think about politics

• Family, School, Peers, Media, Social Environments, Religious Institutions, Globalization, Generational and Life-Cycle effects

3. Public opinion is measured through scientific polling, and the results of public opinion polls influence public policies and institutions 

• Opinion Polls

• Benchmark Polls

• Tracking Polls

• Entrance/Exit Polls

• Sampling techniques: The Sample must be a Representative Random Sample

4. There is a discernible relationship between Scientific Polling, Elections, and Policy Debates

5. Political ideology is an interlocking set of ideas that form the basis for political decision-making

• Liberal Ideology: More open to allowing the government to expand and provide services to the public

• Conservative ideology: Tradition and Establishment “If it ain't broke, don't fix it”

• Democratic = Liberal Ideology

• Republican = Conservative Ideology

6. Public policy only reflects the attitudes and beliefs of those who actually participate in the political process

• Liberals: More government involvement in the Economy

• Kenesian Economics: addresses Fiscal Policy, Gov. Spending

• Conservatives: Less government involvement to uphold the principles of the free market

• Supply-Side Economics: Forces of Supply and Demand, and the government should stay away, the Economy will correct itself

• Libertarians: NO government involvement in the Economy

Unit 5 Big Ideas:

1. The Constitution protects Voting Rights, and the Diversity of people eligible to vote has expanded over time

• Amendments that Expand Voting Rights

• 15th Amendment - Voting Rights to Black Men

• 17th Amendment - Voting for Senators by the People

• 19th Amendment - Voting Rights to Women 

• 23rd Amendment - Voting opened to D.C.

• 24th Amendment - Abolished Poll Taxes

• 26th Amendment - Changed Voting Age to 18

• Models of Voting Behavior

  • Rational-Choice Voting: Voting based on personal self-interest

  • Retrospective Voting: Voting based on the track record of the candidate

  • Prospective Voting: Voting based on the potential future of the candidate

  • Straight Ticket Voting: Voting for your party's candidates 

2. Several Factors determine voter turnout in any given election

• Structural Barriers

  • Voter ID Requirements dissuade some voters from voting if they don't have access

  • Political Efficacy: If a voter's vote can make any difference can dissuade voters from voting

  • Type of election

  • Demographics

3. Linkage institutions are societal structures that connect people to their government or the political process and allow individuals to communicate their preferences to policymakers

• Political Parties - An organization with ideologies that hopes for candidates for elections, Party Realignment, Campaign Finance Laws

• Interest Groups 

• Elections

• Social Media

4. The US operates as a 2 party system, and makes it difficult for third parties and independent parties to ever win an election

• Winner-take-all system

• Third-party agendas incorporated into the platforms of major parties

5. Interest groups are a linkage institution that mostly form around single issues or a certain demographic in order to influence policymaking

• Lobbying

• Iron triangle

• Funding: more money = more influence

• Free rider problem: a larger group benefits from the efforts of an interest group

6. The president is elected through a series of steps and ultimately through the electoral college

• A candidate must win the state primary election/caucus to earn the party’s nomination

  • Closed primaries: must vote for the voter’s declared party

  • Open primaries: vote for any party candidate based on personal beliefs 

• General Election: Campaigning

  • Incumbency advantage: A Sitting Position holder has a higher chance of winning the election if they are running for the same position

• Electoral College

7. Congressional elections have less participation than presidential elections and several factors determine who gets elected to Congress

• All House seats and ⅔ of Congress seats are up for election every 2 years

  • Incumbency advantage is much more powerful

• Gerrymandered districts pose issues

8. Running a campaign for office is a complex and exceedingly complicated process, and campaign organizations and strategies affect the election process

• Fundraising

  • PACs/Super PACs

9. Money is at the heart of political campaigns. But there are laws that govern such financial contributions, and that has led to debate about the proper role money ought to play in politics

• Federal Election Committee and Campaign Finance Laws

  • Hard money vs. Soft money 

    • Hard money: Traceable

    • Soft money: Sneaky, not subject to campaign finance laws

  • BCRA (Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act): Law increasing the limits of Hard Money donations, but tried its best to limit the spending of Soft Money (stand by your AD provisions, “I am … and I approve this message”

  • Citizens United v. FEC: BCRA’s Limitations on Campaign Finance amounted to a violation of the First Amendment right to free speech

  • “Corporations are people, too.”

10. The media is a linkage Institution, also known as a watchdog agency, which holds the government responsible to the citizens

• Changed over time

• Investigative reporting

• “Watchdog Agency” - The media is there to tell the people what their government is doing 

• Gatekeeping: The issues that are chosen to report on shape the nature of the conversation

• Horse-Race Media

• Ideological appeals

Thank you Steve Heimler ILY <3