Physiological Psychology and Psychopharmacology Lecture Notes

Importance of Physiological Psychology and Psychopharmacology

• Emphasized on EPPP: 15 to 19 of 75 scored questions.

• Focus on:

  • Functions of brain areas/structures.

  • Consequences of injuries or functioning abnormalities.

  • Questions on neurons and neurotransmitters (2-3) and drug effects (2-3).

  • Majority are straightforward recall questions.

Structure of Lecture

Part One:

• Overview of:

  • Neurons and major neurotransmitters.

  • Nervous system structure.

  • Major structures of the hindbrain and midbrain.

Part Two:

• Forebrain structures, causes & symptoms of neurological disorders, psychoactive drug uses & side effects.

• Example questions in terms of content and format similar to EPPP.

Study Strategies

• Require memorization, useful strategies:

  • Flashcards and quizzes.

  • Matching questions and tables of brain areas/functions.

  • Frequent review sessions for recall practice.

• Reprint and complete previously created tables as practice.

• Review incorrectly answered practice exam questions.

Nervous System Overview

• Composed of:

  • Neurons: Communicate signals within the nervous system.

  • Glial Cells: Provide structural support, insulation, and nutrients.

Neuron Structure:

• Dendrites: Receive signals from presynaptic neurons.

• Cell body (Soma): Contains nucleus, mitochondria, essential for survival.

• Axon: Transmits information to postsynaptic cells.\n- Synapse: Gap between axon and receptor on postsynaptic cell.

• Myelin: Insulation on some axons, speeds up signal transmission.

Multiple Sclerosis

• Disease caused by destruction of myelin in brain/spinal cord.

• Symptoms: impairs vision, pain, fatigue, slurred speech, tremors, impaired coordination.

Neurotransmitters

• Chemicals transmitting information between neurons, can be:

  • Excitatory (increase likelihood of action potential).

  • Inhibitory (decrease likelihood of action potential).

• Action Potential: Electrical impulse traveling the axon, responsible for neurotransmitter release; all-or-none response.

Key Neurotransmitters:

1. Dopamine: Movement, mood, learning. Related disorders:

   • High levels: Schizophrenia

   • Low levels: Parkinson’s, ADHD, depression.

2. Acetylcholine: Muscle control, memory; low levels associated with Alzheimer’s.

3. Glutamate: Primary excitatory neurotransmitter, plays role in synaptic plasticity and memory; excessive levels cause excitotoxicity.

4. Norepinephrine: Arousal, attention; related to mood disorders.

5. Serotonin: Mood, sleep regulation; low levels linked to depression, high levels to disorders like autism.

6. GABA: Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter; low levels associated with anxiety.

7. Endorphins: Inhibit pain, contribute to pleasure; released during vigorous exercise (runner's high).

Pharmacology of Psychoactive Drugs

• Agonists: Mimic neurotransmitters (e.g., Parkinson’s treatment).

• Partial Agonists: Weaker mimics (e.g., certain anxiety medications).

• Inverse Agonists: Opposite effects of neurotransmitters.

• Antagonists: Block neurotransmitter effects (e.g., antipsychotic drugs).

Central Nervous System Structure

• Divided into: Central (brain & spinal cord) and Peripheral systems.

Regions of the Brain:

1. Hindbrain: Medulla, pons, cerebellum.

   • Medulla: Regulates autonomic functions (heart rate, breathing).

   • Pons: Connects cerebellum hemispheres, regulates arousal and movement.

   • Cerebellum: Coordinates voluntary movements, procedural memory.

2. Midbrain: Connects hindbrain and forebrain, regulates arousal, and consciousness (reticular activating system).

3. Forebrain: Largest region, includes subcortical and cortical structures (involved in higher brain functions).

Spinal Cord:

• Contains 31 pairs of spinal nerves; injury impacts sensory/motor functions.

  • Injury types:

  • Cervical Injury: Quadriplegia.

  • Thoracic/Lumbar Injury: Paraplegia.

Autonomic Nervous System

• Somatic: Controls voluntary muscles, transmits sensory information.

• Autonomic: Controls involuntary functions, further divided into:

  • Sympathetic: Mobilizes energy in stress (fight or flight).

  • Parasympathetic: Restores body to calm state.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

• Stages of stress response:

1. Alarm Stage: Bodily responses initiated by hypothalamus (elevated heart rate, adrenaline release).

2. Resistance Stage: Cortisol levels remain elevated; physiological functions attempt to return to normal.

3. Exhaustion Stage: Prolonged stress leads to physiological breakdown.

Hindbrain Functions

• Medulla: Involuntary functions (breathing, heart rate).

• Pons: Connects cerebellum, regulates respiration.

• Cerebellum: Coordinates movement, maintains balance. Damage leads to ataxia and motor issues.

Review Questions

1. Effects of loud noise on physiology: C. sympathetic nervous system.

2. Resistance stage of GAS: A. Resistance.

3. SIDS and control of breathing: B. Medulla.

4. Causes of coma: C. Reticular formation.

Emphasized on EPPP: 15 to 19 of 75 scored questions.

Focus on:

• Functions of brain areas/structures.

• Consequences of injuries or functioning abnormalities.

• Questions on neurons and neurotransmitters (2-3) and drug effects (2-3).

• Majority are straightforward recall questions.

Structure of Lecture

Part One:

• Overview of:

  • Neurons and major neurotransmitters.

  • Nervous system structure.

  • Major structures of the hindbrain and midbrain for understanding basic physiological functions.

Part Two:

• Forebrain structures, causes & symptoms of neurological disorders, psychoactive drug uses & side effects.

• Example questions in terms of content and format similar to EPPP for effective preparation.

Study Strategies
Require memorization, useful strategies:

• Flashcards and quizzes to reinforce knowledge.

• Matching questions and tables of brain areas/functions for visual learning.

• Frequent review sessions for recall practice to enhance retention.

• Reprint and complete previously created tables as practice to identify gaps in knowledge.

• Review incorrectly answered practice exam questions to focus on weak areas.

Nervous System Overview
Composed of:

• Neurons: Communicate signals within the nervous system, which form the basis for all neurological functions.

• Glial Cells: Provide structural support, insulation, and nutrients for neurons, maintaining a healthy environment in the nervous system.

Neuron Structure:

• Dendrites: Receive signals from presynaptic neurons and play a key role in information processing.

• Cell body (Soma): Contains nucleus, mitochondria, critical for cellular survival and function.

• Axon: Transmits information to postsynaptic cells.

  • Synapse: Gap between axon and receptor on postsynaptic cell where neurotransmitter release occurs.

• Myelin: Insulation on some axons, speeds up signal transmission and ensures efficient nerve impulse conduction, critical in diseases like Multiple Sclerosis.

Multiple Sclerosis
Disease caused by destruction of myelin in brain/spinal cord, leading to disrupted communication in the nervous system.
Symptoms: Impairs vision, causes pain, fatigue, slurred speech, tremors, and impaired coordination, significantly affecting quality of life.

Neurotransmitters
Chemicals transmitting information between neurons, can be:

• Excitatory (increase likelihood of action potential) or

• Inhibitory (decrease likelihood of action potential).

• Action Potential: Electrical impulse traveling the axon, responsible for neurotransmitter release; operates on an all-or-none response principle, critical for effective neurotransmission.

Key Neurotransmitters:

• Dopamine: Movement, mood, learning. Related disorders:

  • High levels: Schizophrenia leading to behavioral disturbances.

  • Low levels: Parkinson’s, ADHD, depression resulting in motor and cognitive impairments.

• Acetylcholine: Muscle control, memory; low levels associated with Alzheimer’s causing cognitive decline.

• Glutamate: Primary excitatory neurotransmitter, plays role in synaptic plasticity and memory; excessive levels can cause excitotoxicity, leading to neuron damage.

• Norepinephrine: Arousal, attention; related to mood disorders which can impair daily functioning.

• Serotonin: Mood, sleep regulation; low levels linked to depression, while high levels can be associated with disorders like autism affecting behavioral regulation.

• GABA: Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter; low levels associated with anxiety, integral in anxiety management therapies.

• Endorphins: Inhibit pain, contribute to pleasure; released during vigorous exercise (runner's high), reinforcing the connection between physical activity and mental health.

Pharmacology of Psychoactive Drugs

• Agonists: Mimic neurotransmitters (e.g., Parkinson’s treatment with Levodopa enhancing dopamine levels).

• Partial Agonists: Weaker mimics (e.g., certain anxiety medications like buspirone providing balanced effects).

• Inverse Agonists: Produce opposite effects of neurotransmitters, sometimes used in research.

• Antagonists: Block neurotransmitter effects (e.g., antipsychotic drugs such as olanzapine, managing symptoms of schizophrenia).

Central Nervous System Structure
Divided into: Central (brain & spinal cord) and Peripheral systems to manage body functions.
Regions of the Brain:

• Hindbrain: Medulla, pons, cerebellum.

  • Medulla: Regulates autonomic functions (heart rate, breathing) critical to survival.

  • Pons: Connects cerebellum hemispheres, regulates arousal and movement, facilitating bodily coordination.

  • Cerebellum: Coordinates voluntary movements, procedural memory essential for tasks such as riding a bike. Damage leads to ataxia and motor issues disrupting daily activities.

• Midbrain: Connects hindbrain and forebrain, regulates arousal, and consciousness (reticular activating system crucial for alertness).

• Forebrain: Largest region, includes subcortical and cortical structures involved in higher brain functions, emotion regulation, and cognitive processing.

Spinal Cord:
Contains 31 pairs of spinal nerves; injury greatly impacts sensory/motor functions, leading to significant life changes.
Injury types:

• Cervical Injury: Results in quadriplegia affecting all limbs.

• Thoracic/Lumbar Injury: Typically leads to paraplegia, impacting lower limbs.

Autonomic Nervous System

• Somatic: Controls voluntary muscles, transmits sensory information for conscious awareness.

• Autonomic: Controls involuntary functions, further divided into:

  • Sympathetic: Mobilizes energy in stress (fight or flight) to prepare the body for action.

  • Parasympathetic: Restores body to calm state facilitating recovery and maintenance.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Stages of stress response:

• Alarm Stage: Bodily responses initiated by hypothalamus (elevated heart rate, adrenaline release) triggering immediate reactions to stressors.

• Resistance Stage: Cortisol levels remain elevated; physiological functions attempt to return to normal, combating stress effects.

• Exhaustion Stage: Prolonged stress leads to physiological breakdown, increasing the susceptibility to illness.

Hindbrain Functions

• Medulla: Involuntary functions (breathing, heart rate) essential for life.

• Pons: Connects cerebellum, regulates respiration affecting overall oxygen intake.

• Cerebellum: Coordinates movement, maintains balance; damage leads to ataxia and motor issues affecting coordination.

Review Questions

• Effects of loud noise on physiology: C. sympathetic nervous system.

• Resistance stage of GAS: A. Resistance.

• SIDS and control of breathing: B. Medulla.

• Causes of coma: C. Reticular formation.