Lecture 8_Social Psychology (6)

Social Psychology Overview

• Definition: The scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.

• Key Emphases:

  • Power of the Situation: Importance of social norms, roles, and expectations.

  • Power of the Person: Influence of personality, attitudes, and past experiences.

  • Importance of Cognition: Social reality is constructed subjectively.

Part 1: The Self

Self-Esteem

• Overall self-evaluation: Can be approached in two ways:

  • Bottom-up approach: Performance in valued areas (e.g., sports) affects self-esteem.

  • Top-down approach: High self-esteem influences perception of abilities (sports, appearance).

• Distinction:

  • Self-Esteem: General self-evaluation.

  • Self-Efficacy: Perception of ability to accomplish specific tasks.

Self-Serving Biases

• Definition: Maintaining a favorable self-image, often subjective and not reality-based.

• Characteristics:

  • "I am better than average": Most people see themselves as above average on socially desirable traits.

  • Education Impact: Education does not eliminate self-serving bias.

Self-Serving Biases (Continued)

False Consensus and Uniqueness

• False Consensus Effect: Overestimating how common one’s opinions or unsuccessful behaviors are.

  • Example: Evaluating test failure by disregarding broader results.

• False Uniqueness Effect: Underestimating how common one’s successes or desirable behaviors are.

  • Example: Believing a distinction mark is rare despite higher rates than perceived.

Self-Handicapping

• Definition: Sabotaging one's own success to protect self-image.

  • Examples include excuses (illness before competition) and procrastination (not studying).

• Function: If one fails, the cause can be external; if succeeds, boosts self-image.

Part 2: Social Beliefs & Judgments

Attributing Causality

• Attribution Types:

  • Internal Causes: Dispositions and personality.

  • External Causes: Situational factors.

• Negative Behavior Focus: Tendency to pay more attention to negative behavior as it’s infrequent.

Fundamental Attribution Error

• Definition: Underestimating situational influences while overestimating individual traits in explaining behavior.

  • Example: Judging someone as punctual based on a few instances without considering situational factors.

• Actor-Observer Bias: Individuals attribute their behavior to situational factors and others’ behaviors to personal characteristics.

Part 3: Conformity

Overview

• Conformity Definition: Adjusting opinions and behaviors to align with group norms.

• Asch's Experiment: Study revealing 75% of participants conformed at least once despite clear answers.

• Sherif’s Experiment: Participants developed a shared group norm for ambiguous situations.

Explaining Conformity

• Dual-process Dependency Model:

  • Informational Influence: Seeking information when uncertain; results in attitude change.

  • Normative Influence: Seeking social approval when certain; results in public compliance.

• Factors Affecting Conformity:

  • Group size, unanimity, cohesion, and status influence levels of conformity.

Part 4: Obedience

Milgram’s Experiment

• Setup: Real participants (teachers) administered shocks to learners (confederates) under guidance from an authority figure.

• Results: 65% of participants continued to the highest shock level, indicating strong obedience to authority.

• Historical Context: Parallels are drawn with events like the Holocaust to explore obedience to authority.

Part 5: Prejudice

Definitions

• Stereotype: Generalized belief about a group.

• Prejudice: Negative preconceived judgment about a group.

• Discrimination: Unjust behavior directed at a group.

Sources of Prejudice

• Blatant vs. Subtle Prejudice: Shift from overt prejudice to subtle forms, such as rejecting immigrants for non-racial reasons.

• Gender Prejudice: Strong stereotypes exist with both benevolent and hostile sexism.

Part 6: Group Influence

Social Facilitation

• Definition: Enhanced performance on simple tasks in group settings due to increased arousal.

• Zajonc’s Drive Theory: Presence of others increases arousal, enhancing dominant responses.

Social Loafing

• Definition: Reduced individual effort when working in a group due to responsibility diffusion.

• Prevention Strategies: Holding individuals accountable, emphasizing team cohesion, and setting challenging goals.

Deindividuation

• Definition: Aroused individuals in groups may exhibit shocking behavior due to diminished self-awareness and accountability.

• Situational Influence: Behaviors influenced by group norms rather than individual morals.

Group Polarization**

• Definition: Group discussions amplify initial inclinations, strengthening shared viewpoints.

• Example: Discussions leading to intensified views on divisive issues.

Part 7: Aggression

Definitions

• Hostile Aggression: Driven by anger; a direct intention to harm.

• Instrumental Aggression: A means to an end, often calculated rationally.

Theories of Aggression

• Instinct Theory: Freud's idea of death instinct as a source of aggression.

• Biochemical Influences: Effects of alcohol and testosterone elevate aggression.

Part 8: Altruism

Definitions

• Altruism: Motivation to increase another's welfare with no regard for personal gain.

• Theories of Helping:

  • Social Exchange Theory: Helping behavior viewed as a transaction aimed at maximizing rewards and minimizing costs.

  • Social Responsibility Norm: Expectations for individuals to assist those in need regardless of anticipated rewards.

Bystander Effect

• Phenomenon: Individuals are less likely to help in groups due to diffusion of responsibility, pluralistic ignorance, and interpretation delays.

Part 9: Cultural Differences

Individualism vs. Collectivism

• Individualistic Cultures: Emphasis on personal autonomy and self-attributes.

• Collectivistic Cultures: Values social harmony and community over individual needs.

• Hong Kong Example: A melting pot of individualistic and collectivistic ideologies due to historical influences.