PSY201 Exam 3

Learning and reward:

4. Learning- types of learning

PSY 201: Mind and Brain

Study Guide: EXAM 3

Textbook: Psychological Science, 7th ed. Chapters 6-7 AND additional materials from lessons and assignments.

Reading: This is a list of important terms and concepts that are relevant to Exam 3. While this is fairly comprehensive and

should help your preparation, please note that the questions on the exam will NOT be based exclusively on this subset

of terminology.

• The exam will consist of 40 multiple-Choice type questions.

• Questions included are meant to assess your knowledge of course content, your understanding and ability to

apply concepts to real life scenarios as well as analyze, evaluate and discuss theories and research related to

each of the concepts.

• Remember, while lecture material and readings have some overlap, they are not replications of each other;

some lecture material is not covered in the readings and vice versa. You are expected to be familiar with ALL

concepts discussed in class, in focus readings as well as those from ZAPS labs.

Terms/Concepts which you should know (organized by topic):

While the exam is NOT cumulative, some general

concepts relevant to this exam from exam 1 are

Listed here:

The major functional computing components of the

brain are:

Neurons: the fundamental computing units of the

nervous system local

synapses: point of connection between two neurons

microcircuits: interactions between nearby synapses

onto a single neuron

circuits: networks of connected neurons

1. Research methods (studies on learning and

memory)

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Document decisions and relevant

information

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Celebrate achievements

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Add next steps

2. Brain structures relevant to learning and

memory (specifics below).

primary sensory areas: include occipital,

temporal, and parietal lobes that process raw

sensory input, which is critical for encoding

experiences that contribute to memory

formation

primary motor area: located in the frontal lobe

and is responsible for voluntary movement and

important for procedural memory, involves the

motor cortex along with the basal ganglia

(motor control, procedural learning, and habit

formation) and cerebellum (motor control,

coordination, balance, and motor learning,

cognitive functions, and memory)

association areas: include parietal, temporal,

and prefrontal association areas that integrate

sensory information and contribute to higher

cognitive functions such as perception,

decision-making, and memory retrieval. The

posterior parietal cortex plays a role in spatial

memory and attention.

Frontal areas: The prefrontal cortex is essential

for working memory, decision-making, and

executive functions. It interacts with the

hippocampus and other brain structures to

regulate memory retrieval and goal-directed

learning..

Nonassociative: learning to adjust response

to repeated stimulus/repeated exposure to a

single stimulus or event

Associative: learning about the link between

two stimuli or events that go together/

linking of two events

Social: learning by instruction or observing

how others behave

5. Non-associative –

habituation: a decrease in behavioral response

after repeated exposure to a stimulus

sensitization: an increase in behavioral response

after exposure to a stimulus6. Associative-

classical conditioning: also known as Pavlovian

conditioning– a type of associative learning in which

a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response when it

is associated with a stimulus that already produces

that response

unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus that elicits a

response, such as a reflex, without any prior learning

unconditioned response: a response that does not

have to be learned, such as reflexes

neutral stimulus: does not naturally trigger any

specific response

conditioned stimulus: a stimulus that elicits a

response only after learning has taken place

conditioned response: a response to a conditioned

stimulus, a response that has been learned

7.

Acquisition - the gradual formation of an

association between the conditioned and

unconditioned stimuli

contiguity: the closeness in time between

two stimuli

contingency: the relationship between two

events where one event depends on the

occurrence of the other

extinction: a process in which the

conditioned response is weakened when the

conditioned stimulus is repeated without

the unconditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery of response: when

previously extinguished conditioned

response reemerges after the presentation

of the conditioned stimulus

Generalization: occurs when the stimuli

similar but not identical to the conditioned

stimulus produce the conditioned response

discrimination: learn to differentiate

between two similar stimuli if one is

consistently associated with the

unconditioned stimulus and the other is not

8. Associative –

operant conditioning: association of voluntary

action and a consequence

Law of effect: any behavior that leads to a

“satisfying state of affairs” is likely to

occur again

shaping: a process of operant condition; it

involves reinforcing behaviors that are

increasingly similar to the desired

behavior

9. Reinforcement and punishment:

positive punishment: the administration of a

stimulus to decrease the probability of

the behavior’s recurrence

positive reinforcement: the administration of

a stimulus to increase the probability of

the behavior’s recurrence

negative punishment: the removal of a

stimulus to decrease the probability of a

behavior's recurrence

negative reinforcement: the removal of a

stimulus to increase the probability of a

behavior's recurrence

10. Reinforcement schedules –

continuous reinforcement: enforce a behavior

each time it occurs

partial reinforcement: a type of learning in

which behavior is reinforced intermittently

schedule: the number of times the behavior

occurs

Interval schedule: specific unit of time, as

when behavior is reinforced every minute

or hour

Fixed interval: reinforcement after a certain

amount of time has passed

Variable interval: reinforcement after a

passage of time, but isn’t regular

Fixed Ratio: reinforcement after a certain

amount of responses have been made

Variable Ratio: reinforcement provided after

an unpredictable number of responses

(this is the best interval schedule )

11. Cognitive learning –

latent learning: a type of learning that

occurs without any obviousreinforcement and isn’t

demonstrated until there’s an

incentive to do

cognitive maps: a mental picture of the

layout of one’s physical

environment

12. Observational learning –

mirror neurons: specific neurons in the

frontal cortex that are activated

when one observes another

individual engage in an action and

when a similar action is performed

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It may serve as the basis of

imitation learning, but the

firing of mirror neurons

does not always lead to

imitative behavior

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They’re possibly the neural

basis for empathy and may

play a role in humans’

ability to communicate

through language

13. Vicarious learning: learning the

consequences of an action by watching others

being rewarded or punished for performing

the action

vicarious reinforcement: occurs when the

frequency of certain behaviors increases as a

result of observing others rewarded for the

same behaviors

14. Skill learning-

effects of practice: Memory is strengthened

with repeated retrieval.

feedback: enhances performance, and

retention, and allows for re-consolidation of

learning

practice schedules: spaced is better versus

massed practice, and constant is better than

variable practice

15. Implicit learning: memory without conscious

effort intention

16. Social learning: acquiring or changing a behavior

after verbal instruction or exposure to another

individual performing that behavior

Conformity: a tendency to adopt the behavior of the

group

17. Learning in the brain:

synaptic plasticity: the ability of the brain to

change the strength of connections

between neurons which is critical for

learning

LTP: strengthening of a synaptic connection,

making the postsynaptic neurons more

easily activated by presynaptic neurons

LTD: the strength of synapse between

neurons weakens over a prolonged

period

18. Hebbian learning: theory that explains

how neurons adapt and form stronger

connections through repeated use

Priming effects/pattern: when a stimulus

influences how someone responds to a

later stimulus

completion effects: the ability to retrieve a

stored memory trace based on an

incomplete or degraded set of sensory

cues as input

19. Flashbulb memories: vivid episodic

memories of the circumstances in

which people first learned of a

surprising and consequential or

emotionally arousing event

Confidence: The subjective belief or

certainty an individual has about

the correctness of a recalled

memory

accuracy: The degree to which a

recalled memory correctly reflects

the actual event or information as it

originally occurred. Usually, people

are not very accurate but still very

confident

20. Reward in the brain-

Dopamine: In OPERANT CONDITIONING:

Primary and Secondary reinforcers rely

on dopamine – Pleasure usually results

from the activation of dopamine

neurons in the nucleus accumbens

(drugs and secondary reinforcers)

Blocking dopamine blocks

conditioning. Dopamine agonists

enhance the learning

role of the nucleus accumbens in

reward/pleasure/motivation: Pleasure

usually results from the activation of

dopamine neurons

in the nucleus accumbens

21. Application of learning research:

Addictions – role of classical and instrumental

conditioning:

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conditioned drug effects are

common ( ex: the smell of coffee

increases alertness in coffee

drinkers)

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Conditioned tolerance as a result of

compensatory response

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Conditioning to context

cues in the environment

associated with drug use

reduces the physiologicalresponses to many drugs

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Heroin deaths in long-time

users due to novel situation

cues (Siegel 2001)

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» “In treating drug

addiction, it is

necessary to

reduce the positive

conditioned

responses

associated with

taking the drug”

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Contextual cues set up

conditioned compensatory

changes in the physiology

that allow larger doses to

be tolerated.

22. Phobias: behavior can be learned as long as

it is reinforced

Conditioning in phobias: fear conditioning—

classically conditioned to fear neutral

stimulus

systematic desensitization: therapy for

phobias; present successive

approximations of conditioned stimuli

while the patient stays relaxed

Memory:

23. Types of memories:

Explicit memory: used to remember information we

can say we know

semantic memory: knowledge of concepts,

categories, and facts independent of

personal experience (facts)

episodic memory: memory of past

experiences that can be identified as

occurring at a time and place (previous

experience that plays like an ‘episode’)

implicit memory: without conscious effort intention

procedural memory: a type of implicit

memory that I love skills and habits

(coordinated movement)

Priming: perceptual conceptual/facilitation of a

response to a stimulus

Prospective memory: remembering to do something

at some future time

24. Information Processing Model of Memory:

25. Memory stores and processes - capacity, and

duration of each kind /type of memory store.

Working memory: a limited-capacity cognitive

system that temporarily stores and manipulates

information for current use

26. Control processes:

encoding: the process by which the perception of

a stimulus or event gets transformed into a

memory

storage: maintaining information over time in

long-term memory

retrieval: movement of information from

long-term memory to short-term memory

(remembering)

27.

Role of attention and rehearsal: a

28. Iconic/Echoic memory = sensory memory

iconic memory: viewing of stimulus

Sensory memory: temporary memory system closely

tied to the sensory system

echoic memory: auditory stimulus

29.

STM: temporary working memory that is multimodal

(general for senses), small capacity, quick decay (<1

minute), rehearsal is needed, transfer to our from the

long-term memory.Attentive/conscious processing

occurs here. Information can enter STM from both

sensory memory and LTM. Temporary buffers with

small capacity and short duration

LTM: the storage of information that lasts from

minutes to forever, is limitless, and lasts minutes

forever. The stored representation of knowledge

gained from previous experience. Unlimited capacity

and indefinite duration.

primacy effect: people have a good memory for items

at the beginning of a list (reflects long-term memory)

recency effect: people also have a good memory for

items at the end of a list (reflect working memory)

serial position effect: the first and last things on a list

can be remembered the most

30. STM components-

phonological loop: the inner voice that reads, speaks,

and repeats words

visuospatial sketchpad: the internal center that seeswhere and what features in the scene are

relevant

executive control: coordinates all material

31. Maintenance rehearsal: rote repetition– the

length of time an item is rehearsed (kept in STM

with auditory repetition) is not related to how

well it is remembered. Short memory traces

elaborative rehearsal: connecting new information

to long-term memories

depth of processing: how deeply information is

encoded, with deeper (semantic) processing

leading to better memory retention compared

to shallow (structural or phonemic) processing.

32. Ways to increase recall:

chunking: organizing information into meaningful units

to make it easier to remember

Practice: Memory is strengthened with repeated

retrieval. Frequent testing and active

responding spaced out over time provide a

strategy to enhance memory

Overlearning: creates stronger memory traces,

probably because of repeated retrieval

Sleep: get more sleep because memories undergo

consolidation during sleep

peg-word system: items are “hung” on a system of

already well-known “pegs”

– place a list of items to

be remembered on a familiar route.

–

“One is a

bun, two is a shoe…

”

mnemonics: learning aids or strategies that improve

recall through the use of retrieval cues

Elaboration: Think about it and the meaning. When

you relate new information to information you

already know, you create more retrieval cues, which

make you more likely to recall the new information

Later *relating materials to what you already know: a

33. LTM--Representation and Organization:

represented as explicit or implicit memories. Memory

is organized in hierarchical structures, schemas, etc.

34. Association networks: In this semantic network,

similar concepts are connected

through their associations.

Representation of concepts & representing

visual-spatial info: Stored as propositions (verbal

statements) or as visual images (a visual

representation that preserves spatial and form

information)

boundary extension people tend to remember seeing

more of a naturalistic scene that was presented

35. Hierarchical model of semantic (conceptual)

memory – prototypes/“basic” level of the

hierarchy, learning in these networks:

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Concepts are represented as nodes in a

hierarchy - categories with distinct properties

having links between different categories.

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Learning is the process of adding/ reconnecting

nodes to the network

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Form prototypes of basic-level categories

(individualized

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Example: animal→mammal→dog→bulldog

36. Forgetting –

proactive interference: interference that occurs

when prior information inhibits the ability to

remember new information

Retroactive interference: interference that occurs

ends when new information inhibits the ability to

remember old information

decay: with time and consolidation failure. A major

cause of absentmindedness is inattentiveness to

details which produces shallow encoding

retrieval failure: retrieval-induced forgetting is

impairment of the ability to recall an item in the

future after retrieving a related item from long-term

memory

37. Recall-

constructive effects: Remembering is an active

inferential process

influenced by a person’s general knowledge of

the world.

Bartlett (1932)--remembering pictures and stories

consolidation: the gradual process of memory

storage in the brain

reconsolidation: the re-storage of memory after

retrieval

contextual/schema effects: cognitive structures in

long-term memory that help us perceive, organize,

and understand information

38.

Memory bias: changing of memories over time in

light of our current beliefs and or attitudes

False memories: vivid recollections of highly

emotional or surprising events

Source misattribution: memory distortion that

occurs when people misremember the time,

place, person, or circumstances involved with

a memory

suggestibility: the development of biased

memories from misleading information/ being

influenced by misleading information about a

memory

Blocking: the temporary inability to remember

something

absentmindedness: the inattentive or shallowencoding of events

framing effects:

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Ventrolateral PFC supports encoding and

retrieval of information (including rehearsal

for maintenance), akin to Baddeley’s

visuospatial sketchpad and

phonological-rehearsal loops

Dorsolateral PFC supports higher-order

executive-control functions such as

monitoring and manipulating stored

information, akin to Baddeley’s central

executive.

39.

Learning and memory concepts as applied to

academic performance*

*See slides from classes.

anterograde amnesia: is a condition in which people

lose the ability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia: is a condition in which people lose

memories, such as memories of events, facts, people,

or even personal information

40. Other amnesias:

TGA (transient global amnesia): Temporary

interruption of blood flow to the brain, by head

trauma, hypoglycemic episode, stroke, heart attack, or

drugs (depressants and alcohol - Korsakoff’s syndrome)

Infantile: developmental effects of brain areas as

well as language skills

Functional: results from psychological (rather than

physical) cause (ex: dissociative fugue)

source amnesia: a type of misattribution that

occurs when people have a memory for an event

but cannot remember where they encountered it

from

41. Neuropsychology of memory –

roles of IT: damage to this area creates deficits in

pattern recognition (visual form agnosia)

MTL: damage to the medial temporal lobe results

in antegrade and retrograde amnesia

Frontal cortex: a (PFC, DLPFC, VLPFC) and other

cortical representations: