Emotional state: best if alert, motivated, surprised and aroused. An emotional connection can enhance memory consolidation.
Rehearsal: repetition and practice. This strengthens neural pathways and improves retention.
Association: tying new information with old memories. Creating connections helps embed new data in existing knowledge structures.
Automatic memory: subconscious information stored in LTM, such as procedural skills or highly practiced facts.
Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another. It focuses on the form and organization of living things.
Physiology: The study of how the body parts function and work together to carry out life-sustaining activities. It explores the mechanisms by which living organisms maintain life.
Gross anatomy: studies large structures (e.g., the brain) that are visible to the naked eye without magnification.
Microscopic anatomy: studies same structures at a different scale, requiring magnification tools like various types of microscopes.
Image example: micrograph of nerve cells from the brain- LM × 1600 (credit a: “WriterHound”/Wikimedia Commons; credit b: Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
Atoms bond to form molecules with three-dimensional structures. These are the basic chemical building blocks of matter.
Example: Water molecule (H_2O)
A variety of molecules combine to form the fluid and organelles of a body cell. Cells are the basic structural and functional units of living organisms.
Example: Cell fluid; organelles (e.g., within smooth muscle cell)
A community of similar cells form a body tissue. Tissues are groups of similar cells that perform a specific function.
Examples: Smooth muscle tissue; Skeletal muscle (from diagram)
Two or more different tissues combine to form an organ. Organs are discrete structures composed of at least two tissue types that perform a specific physiological function.
Examples: Urinary tract system components (Kidney, Ureter, Bladder, Urethra)
Two or more organs work closely together to perform the functions of a body system. Organ systems are groups of organs that cooperate to achieve a major physiological function.
Many organ systems work harmoniously together to perform the functions of an independent organism. An organism represents the highest level of structural organization, a complete living being.
Homeostasis: the state of steady internal conditions maintained by living things, despite continuous changes in the external environment. It is a dynamic equilibrium.
Question posed: Which 11 organ systems regulate homeostasis?
The 11 organ systems commonly cited in physiology contexts that collectively regulate homeostasis are:
Integumentary System
Skeletal System
Muscular System
Nervous System
Endocrine System
Cardiovascular System
Lymphatic System (including Immune System functions)
Respiratory System
Digestive System
Urinary System
Reproductive System
This section provides an overview of the major body systems, their key components, and primary functions, demonstrating how they contribute to the overall well-being and homeostatic balance of the organism.
Components listed (examples visible in image):
Integumentary system: Hair, Skin, Nails.
Function: Forms the external body covering; protects deeper tissues from injury; synthesizes vitamin D; houses cutaneous receptors (pain, pressure, etc.) and sweat and oil glands; aids in body temperature regulation.
Skeletal system: Bones, Cartilage.
Function: Protects and supports body organs; provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement; forms blood cells within bones; stores minerals.
Muscular system: Skeletal muscles.
Function: Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression; maintains posture; produces heat.
Associated structures: Joints, Tendons (often considered part of muscular or skeletal system connections).
Additional fragments visible: “Mu” (incomplete/trimmed in transcript) - Interpretation: overview of major body-system components involved in regulation and structure
Nervous system: Brain, Spinal cord, Nerves.
Function: Fast-acting control system of the body; responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.
Endocrine system: Pituitary gland, Thyroid gland, Pancreas, Adrenal glands, Testes, Ovaries.
Function: Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.
Cardiovascular system: Heart, Blood vessels.
Function: Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, and hormones; the heart pumps blood.
Other glands/organs shown in context: Peripheral nerves (part of the nervous system), Testes (part of the endocrine and reproductive systems).
Lymphatic/Immune system: Thymus, Lymph nodes, Lymphatic vessels, Spleen, Tonsils, Red bone marrow.
Function: Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood; disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream; houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts attacks against foreign substances within the body.
Respiratory system: Nasal passage, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi, Lungs.
Function: Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; the gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
Digestive system: Oral cavity, Esophagus, Stomach, Liver, Gall bladder, Pancreas, Small intestine, Large intestine, Rectum, Anus.
Function: Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
Notes:
Diagrammatic listing of organs across several body systems.
Urinary system: Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary bladder, Urethra.
Function: Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body; regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood.
Reproductive system components: Mammary glands (female), Ovaries, Uterine tubes, Uterus, Vagina (female). Testes, Epididymis, Ductus deferens, Prostate gland, Penis, Scrotum (male).
Function: Overall function is the production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones; remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and fetal development. Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the newborn.
A control mechanism is a regulatory system that maintains homeostasis by responding to changes in variables.
Receptor: detects a stimulus (a change in a variable). It monitors the environment and responds to stimuli.
Control center: processes information and determines response. It receives input from the receptor, analyzes it, and determines the appropriate course of action.
Effector: carrying out the response. It provides the means for the control center's response to the stimulus.
Note: “Response” is categorized under 3 types of feedback mechanisms that regulate homeostasis:
Negative Feedback: The output of the system shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity, bringing the variable back to its set point. This is the most common homeostatic control mechanism.
Positive Feedback: The output of the system enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus, pushing the variable further from its initial value. This mechanism is rare in homeostatic control and typically controls infrequent events that require rapid completion.
Feedforward Control: Anticipates changes in regulated variables and prepares the body for them before they actually occur. This allows the body to minimize deviations from the set point (e.g., salivation before eating).
Stimulus: Body temperature exceeds 37^ ext{°C} (normal body temperature).
Sensor: Nerve cells in skin and brain (thermoreceptors) detect the temperature increase.
Control center: Temperature regulatory center in brain (hypothalamus) receives input from the sensors.
Effector: Sweat glands throughout body (increase sweat production to cool down); blood vessels in the skin dilate (vasodilation), allowing more blood to flow closer to the surface to release heat.
Result: Negative feedback loop to reduce body temperature back to the homeostatic set point.
Significance: Maintains homeostasis by opposing the initial change, ensuring internal stability.
Trigger: Nerve impulses from cervix transmitted to brain; brain stimulates pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin.
Effect: Oxytocin carried in bloodstream to uterus; Head of baby pushes against cervix, causing cervical stretch. This cervical stretching initiates nerve impulses.
Outcome: Oxytocin stimulates stronger uterine wall contractions, which further push the baby toward the cervix. This increased pressure on the cervix intensifies the nerve impulses, leading to more oxytocin release, creating a self-amplifying cycle that continues until the baby is delivered.
Nature of feedback: Positive feedback (amplifies the initial stimulus).
Patient: 64-year-old, fair-skinned man during hot, humid summer day.
Symptoms: Dizziness, confusion, disorientation, pale blue skin, sweating had stopped (indicating the body's cooling mechanism failed).
Event: Fainted when standing, transported to hospital.
Condition: Heat stroke, a severe form of hyperthermia often caused by prolonged exposure to high temperatures or physical exertion in hot weather.
Connection to homeostasis: Failure of thermoregulation (loss of sweating, impaired fluid balance) disrupts the body's ability to maintain internal conditions, leading to severe hyperthermia and systemic instability. Without proper homeostatic mechanisms, the body's core temperature rises to dangerous levels, causing widespread cell damage and organ failure.
Purpose: Standard reference position for all anatomical descriptions and directional terms, ensuring clear and consistent communication among healthcare professionals and anatomists.
Key points:
Body erect with feet slightly apart (shoulder width) and toes pointing forward.
Arms hanging naturally at the sides.
Palms face forward with thumbs pointing away from the body.
Head is straight, and eyes look straight ahead.
Right and left refer to the body being viewed (the patient's right/left), not the observer’s perspective.
Always use directional terms as if the body is in anatomical position, even if the body is in a different actual position.
Two major divisions:
Axial: Head, neck, and trunk (the main axis of the body).
Appendicular: Limbs (appendages, or extremities) attached to the axial part.
Regional terms designate specific areas within body divisions (e.g., brachial for arm, femoral for thigh) to provide precise location descriptions.
Visual/regional map/diagram (labeling of body regions) presented in the slide. These labels are commonly used in anatomy to pinpoint locations externally and are essential for communication in clinical settings.
These terms allow for precise description of relative positions of body parts, regardless of body orientation, providing clarity and avoiding ambiguity.
Superior (cranial): Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above. (e.g., The head is superior to the chest.)
Inferior (caudal): Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below. (e.g., The navel is inferior to the chin.)
Anterior (ventral): Toward or at the front of the body; in front of. (e.g., The breastbone is anterior to the spine.)
Posterior (dorsal): Toward or at the back of the body; behind. (e.g., The heart is posterior to the breastbone.)
Medial: Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of. (e.g., The heart is medial to the arm.)
Lateral: Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of. (e.g., The arms are lateral to the chest.)
Intermediate: Between a more medial and a more lateral structure. (e.g., The collarbone is intermediate between the breastbone and shoulder.)
Proximal: Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk. (e.g., The elbow is proximal to the wrist.)
Distal: Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk. (e.g., The knee is distal to the thigh.)
Superficial (external): Toward or at the body surface. (e.g., The skin is superficial to the skeletal muscles.)
Deep (internal): Away from the body surface; more internal. (e.g., The lungs are deep to the skin.)
Humans differ externally and internally. Although anatomy textbooks show the most common structures, individual variations are common.
About 90\% of structures match textbook descriptions.
Possible variations:
Nerve or blood vessel may be out of place.
Small muscle may be missing.
Extreme variations are inconsistent with life, meaning they are incompatible with survival and physiological function.
Imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body or an organ, used to make sections or cuts for viewing internal structures. These planes help visualize three-dimensional relationships.
Sagittal plane: A vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts.
Midsagittal (median) plane: Divides the body exactly in the midline, creating equal right and left halves.
Parasagittal planes: All other sagittal planes offset from the midline, dividing the body into unequal right and left parts.
Frontal (coronal) plane: A vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.
Transverse (horizontal) plane: A horizontal plane that divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts. Also commonly called a cross-section.
Note: All are standard anatomical planes used for sectional imaging in medical diagnostics like CT or MRI.
Spaces within the body that house and protect internal organs (viscera), often lined by serous membranes which reduce friction.
Dorsal body cavity: Located on the posterior side, protects the fragile nervous system organs.
Cranial cavity: Within the skull, encases the brain.
Vertebral (spinal) cavity: Runs within the bony vertebral column, encloses the delicate spinal cord.
Ventral body cavity: Located on the anterior side, houses internal organs collectively called the viscera. This cavity is much larger and more anterior than the dorsal cavity.
Thoracic cavity: The superior subdivision, surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest.
Contains the pleural cavities (each enveloping a lung) and the pericardial cavity (encloses the heart).
The central region between the lungs is the mediastinum, which contains the heart, esophagus, trachea, and major blood vessels.
Abdominal cavity: The inferior subdivision of the ventral cavity, primarily containing the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other digestive organs.
Pelvic cavity: The most inferior subdivision of the ventral cavity, lies within the bony pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum.
Note: The abdominal and pelvic cavities are sometimes referred to as the Abdominopelvic cavity as there is no physical separation between them.
Key sectional views referenced: Dorsal vs Ventral; Superior/inferior within thoracic/abdominopelvic subdivisions (these refer to the anatomical relationships seen in cross-sectional images).
These divisions are clinical tools used to localize pain, tumors, and other abnormalities within the abdominopelvic cavity.
There are 9 abdominal regions, providing more precise localization by dividing the area into a tic-tac-toe grid:
Upper: Right hypochondriac, Epigastric, Left hypochondriac
Middle: Right lumbar, Umbilical, Left lumbar
Lower: Right iliac (inguinal), Hypogastric (pubic), Left iliac (inguinal)
There are 4 abdominal quadrants, providing a simpler division, often used in emergencies:
Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
Serous membrane lines the pericardial cavity and reflects back to cover the heart, creating two layers around the heart.
Analogy: underinflated balloon surrounding a fist. The part of the balloon touching the fist is the visceral layer (adheres directly to the organ), and the outer part of the balloon is the parietal layer (lines the cavity walls). A thin layer of lubricating serous fluid between these layers reduces friction as organs move.
Examples include the pericardium (around the heart), pleura (around the lungs), and peritoneum (around abdominal organs).
Ocular Lenses (eyepiece): magnifies the image from the objective lens, typically 10 \times magnification, where the viewer looks.
Body tube: transmits the image from the objective lenses to the ocular lenses, ensuring proper alignment.
Arm: supports the microscope head and provides a convenient handle for carrying the instrument.
Objective lenses: primary lenses that magnify the specimen, typically mounted on a revolving nosepiece and providing various magnifications (e.g., 4 \times, 10 \times, 40 \times, 100 \times oil immersion).
Stage: a flat platform with a central aperture that holds the specimen slide in position, often with spring clips.
Condenser: a lens system located just below the stage that concentrates light through the specimen, ensuring bright and uniform illumination.
Diaphragm (iris diaphragm): controls the amount of light entering the condenser, adjusting brightness and contrast of the field of view.
Light source: provides illumination for viewing the specimen (usually a lamp at the base of the microscope).
Coarse focusing knob: large knob used for initial, rapid focus adjustments, moving the stage significantly up and down.
Fine focusing knob: smaller knob used for precise focus adjustments, especially at higher magnifications, for sharp image clarity.
Magnifications shown (examples of different types of microscopy):
Brightfield (un-stained): Basic microscopy, often for larger transparent samples.
Brightfield (stained): Uses dyes to enhance contrast and visualize cellular components.
Phase-contrast: Enhances contrast in transparent and unstained living cells by converting phase shifts in light into brightness changes.
Differential interference contrast (Nomarski): Provides a three-dimensional, shadow-cast appearance to images of unstained living cells.
Note: Typical field of view scale example given as about 50 \, \mu m (micrometers) for a reference at higher magnification, indicating the size of the visible area.
Citation for electron microscopy image (authors and journal listed).
General note: Electron microscopy (EM) provides significantly higher resolution images of ultrastructure (fine details of cells and organelles) beyond what light microscopy can achieve, by using a beam of electrons instead of light.
Two main types of electron microscopes:
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM): Used to view internal structures of cells and tissues, creating a detailed two-dimensional (2D) image by passing electrons through the specimen.
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM): Used to view the surface structure and three-dimensional (3D) details of cells and tissues, by scanning the surface with a concentrated electron beam.
X-ray Imaging (Radiography): Uses high-energy electromagnetic radiation (X-rays) to visualize internal structures.
Principle: X-rays are good for detecting dense structures (like bones, foreign objects, or dense tumors) because these structures absorb more X-rays and appear white or bright on the image. Less dense structures like soft tissues or air appear darker.
Examples (structures identified in the figure, typical of a chest X-ray or similar dense tissue imaging): Anterior rib, trachea, spinous process (of vertebrae), clavicle (collarbone), aortic knob (part of aorta), bronchial bifurcation (split of bronchi), left bronchus, vascular hilum (where vessels enter/exit lung), posterior rib, right atrium (of heart), diaphragm, liver, hilum (general entry/exit point of structures), scapula (shoulder blade).
Interpretation: This type of imaging highlights density differences, making it excellent for bone and lung pathology.
Fluoroscopy: A type of X-ray imaging that produces a continuous X-ray image on a monitor, similar to an X-ray movie. This allows real-time visualization of internal organ movement and processes.
Applications: Commonly used to observe continuous motion, such as during angiography (blood vessel studies), gastrointestinal studies (e.g., barium swallows), joint injections, or pacemaker insertions.
1. Uses X-ray technology rotated around the patient to create clearer, detailed cross-sectional images (slices) of the body. A powerful computer then reconstructs these multiple X-ray views into comprehensive 3D images.
2. Applications include precise detection and localization of tumors, aneurysms, kidney stones, gallstones, internal bleeding, bone fractures, and assessment of organ damage after trauma. It provides excellent bony and soft tissue detail.
1. Uses powerful magnets and radio waves to generate detailed images of organs and soft tissues without using ionizing radiation (X-rays).
2. Detects: excels at visualizing soft tissues. Used for detecting cancer cells (especially in brain and soft tissues), chemical diseases of the brain, spinal cord disorders, blood flow problems, injury after stroke, and measuring effects of drugs on tissues.
3. Based on properties of hydrogen atoms (specifically, the alignment and relaxation of their protons in a strong magnetic field and radiofrequency pulses).
4. Visualizes soft tissues with superior contrast resolution compared to CT, making it ideal for the brain, spinal cord, muscles, ligaments, and cartilage.
5. Slower than CT in image acquisition and generally more expensive, and patients with certain metal implants (e.g., pacemakers) cannot undergo MRI.
1. Uses high-frequency sound waves (ultrasound) that are emitted from a transducer and bounce off body structures. The returning echoes are converted into real-time images by a computer.
2. Applications: visualizing soft tissue structures, differentiating between solid structures and fluid-filled cysts (e.g., gallstones, ovarian cysts), assessing blood flow (using Doppler ultrasound), and monitoring fetal development during pregnancy. It is non-invasive, widely available, and does not use ionizing radiation.
1. Uses radioactive tracers (radioisotopes) such as ^{11}\mathrm{C} (Carbon-11), ^{13}\mathrm{N} (Nitrogen-13), ^{15}\mathrm{O} (Oxygen-15), or ^{18}\mathrm{F} (Fluorine-18) that are attached to metabolically active molecules like glucose. These tracers are injected into the patient, and the computer analyzes the emission of gamma rays (produced when positrons, emitted by the isotopes, annihilate with electrons) to produce colorful live-action pictures displaying metabolic activity rather than just anatomical structure.
2. Detects areas undergoing high metabolic activity, indicating physiological function or pathology.
3. Very good at studying glucose absorption by neurons in the brain during certain tasks (functional brain imaging); also widely used to detect brain activity in mental illness, stroke, Alzheimer’s disease, epilepsy, and for staging and monitoring cancer spread and treatment effectiveness.
1. Involves taking X-ray pictures of specific blood vessels before and after the administration of a radio-opaque contrast substance (often iodine-based) which is injected directly into the vessels.
2. Used to visualize the interior of blood vessels and study their lumen (internal space) to detect blockages, aneurysms, narrowing (stenosis), or malformations. Commonly used for vessels of the brain (cerebral angiography) and heart (coronary angiography) to help diagnose and prevent strokes and heart attacks.
Ab-: from, away — abnormal (away from normal), abduction (movement away from midline)
Ad-: to, near, toward — adrenal (near the kidney), adduction (movement toward midline)
Ante-: before, in front of — antepartum (before delivery of child), antebrachial (forearm, before upper arm)
Circum-: around — circumocular (around the eye), circumduction (circular movement)
Co-: with, together — coordinate (work together), cofactor (works with an enzyme)
Con-: with, together — congenital (with birth), convergent (coming together)
Dis-: apart from, separation — disarticulated (taking a joint apart), dissect (cut apart)
Ect-: outside, without — ectonuclear (outside the nucleus), ectopic (out of place)
End-: within, inner — endocardium (lining inner heart), endocrine (secreting internally)
Epi-: upon, on top of — epidermis (upon the skin), epicardium (upon the heart)
Ex-: out from, away from — exhalation (breathe out), excision (cutting out)
Hypo-: under, lower, deficient — hypodermic (under the skin), hypoglycemia (low blood sugar)
Hyper-: above, higher, excessive — hyperactive (higher level activity), hypertension (high blood pressure)
Infra-: under, below — infrapatellar (below the knee), infraorbital (below the eye)
Peri-: around — pericardium (sac around the heart), periosteum (membrane around bone)
Post-: after, behind — postmortem (after death), postnatal (after birth)
Pre-: before, in front of — prenatal (before birth), presynaptic (before a synapse)
Super-: above, on top, superior — superciliary (above the eyebrow), superficial (toward the surface)
Supra-: above, on top — suprapubic (above the pubic bone), supraclavicular (above the clavicle)
Sym-: with, together — symphony (sounds played together), symbiosis (living together)
Syn-: with, together — synarthrosis (union of bones), synapse (junction between neurons)
Trans-: through, across — transurethral (through the urethra), transmembrane (across a membrane)
Uni-: one — unicycle (one wheel), unilateral (one side)
Mono-: one, single — mononuclear (one nucleus), monocyte (single nucleus cell)
Bi-: two — bilateral (two sides), bipedal (two feet)
Bin-: two — binocular (two eyes), binary (composed of two)
Di-: two, double — dicephalic (two heads), diploid (two sets of chromosomes)
Ter-: three, third — tertiary (the third part or stage)
Tri-: three — trilobar (three lobes), triglyceride (molecule with three fatty acids)
Quadr-: four — quadriceps (muscle with four heads), quadriplegia (paralysis of all four limbs)
Tetra-: four — tetracycline (four-ringed molecule), tetrahedron (four-sided shape)
Poly-: many, much — polydactyly (many digits; more than 5), polymer (many repeating units)
Oligo-: few, scant — oligosaccharide (few sugars linked together), oliguria (scant urine production)
Micro-: small — microscope (equipment to view small things), microfilament (small filament)
Macro-: large — macrophage (large eating cell), macromolecule (large molecule)
Mega-: very large — megadontia (huge teeth), megakaryocyte (large nucleus cell)
Acoust-: sound — acoustics (quality of sound), acoustic nerve (nerve for hearing)
Aud-: ear, hear — audition (to hear someone), auditory (relating to hearing)
Abdomin/o: abdomen — abdominal (relating to the abdomen), abdominopelvic (pertaining to abdomen and pelvis)
Acr/o: extremity, limbs, peak — acromegaly (abnormally large limbs), acrocyanosis (bluish discoloration of extremities)
Blast/o: early, embryonic, germ — blastocyte (embryonic type cell), osteoblast (bone-forming cell)
Aden/o: gland — adenopathy (disease of a gland), adenocarcinoma (glandular cancer)
Angi/o: vessel (blood or lymph) — angiogram (picture of a vessel), angioplasty (repair of a vessel)
Arthr/o: joint — arthritis (inflammation of a joint), arthroscopy (visual examination of a joint)
Bucc/o: cheek — buccolabial (relating to cheek and lip), buccal (relating to the cheek)
Cardi/o: heart — cardiology (study of the heart), myocardial (relating to heart muscle)
Corp-: body — corpus callosum (connecting body of brain), corpus luteum (yellow body in ovary)
Chondr/o: cartilage — chondrocyte (cartilage cell), chondroma (cartilage tumor)
Cephal/o: head — cephalic (relating to the head), hydrocephalus (water in the brain)
Cyst/o: bladder, sac, or pouch — cystoscopy (view of the bladder), cystic fibrosis (condition with many cysts)
Cyt/o: cell — cytokinesis (cell movement and division), erythrocyte (red blood cell)
Dent/o: tooth — dental (referring to teeth), dentition (arrangement of teeth)
Dermat/o: skin — dermatitis (skin inflammation), dermatology (study of skin)
Duoden/o: duodenum (first part of small intestine) — duodenal (relating to the duodenum)
Encephal/o: brain — encephalitis (brain inflammation), encephalopathy (brain disease)
Gastr/o: stomach — gastrointestinal (stomach and intestine), gastritis (stomach inflammation)
Hepat/o: liver — hepatitis (liver inflammation), hepatomegaly (enlarged liver)
Gloss/o: tongue — glossopathy (tongue disease), glossitis (tongue inflammation)
Glute-: buttocks — gluteus minimus (small buttocks muscle), gluteal (relating to the buttocks)
Laryng/o: larynx (voice box) — laryngitis (larynx inflammation), laryngectomy (removal of larynx)
My/o: muscle — myocardium (heart muscle), myopathy (muscle disease)
Nephr/o: kidney — nephrologist (one who studies kidneys), nephrectomy (removal of kidney)
Neur/o: nerve, nervous system — neurosurgeon (surgeon of nervous system), neurology (study of nervous system)
Oste/o: bone — osteocyte (bone cell), osteoporosis (bone thinning)
Ot/o: ear — otitis media (middle ear inflammation), otoscope (instrument to view ear)
Ophthalm/o: eye — exophthalmos (eyes bulge out), ophthalmology (study of eye diseases)
Path/o: disease, suffering — pathological (relating to disease), pathogen (disease-causing agent)
Pneumon/o: lung, air — pneumonia (condition of the lung), pneumothorax (air in chest cavity)
Rhin/o: nose — rhinoplasty (reform the nose), rhinitis (nose inflammation)
Stomat/o: mouth, opening — stomatitis (mouth inflammation), stomatologist (mouth specialist)
Thorac/o: chest or thorax — thoracocentesis (puncture of