Note
Studied by 12 people
human impacts on the environment - uiowa
the environment is a phenomenon and system that is constantly interacting in terms of the biological part - living organisms - with the non biotic - non living.
biologic: soil, plants animals
non biotic: climate, geology, water
culture: belief systems, social/economic system, political organization, and personal attitudes.
human ecology: the study of the interactions among human biology, culture, and the environment
human biological ecology: adaptation through biological means - melanin production in sunlight, increased heart rate in high altitude or cold environments, immunity response to disease.
cultural ecology: adaptations through cultural means
plasticity: flexibility of an individual/grooup to adjust to changing conditions
what is culture: dynamic system of learned and shared behaviors, concepts, symbols, and beliefs that facilitates and provide meaning to a human’s interaction with their environment.
responses to environment:
technology - often first and most direct response to change, prior technology influences future choices.
Environmental Utopias:
Agrarianism:
stewardship and sustainability practices
ecological and socially harmonious interaction
resistance of commercialism and industrialism
“back to land”
Guha Critiques:
static conception of the environment, assumes a timeless, unchanging relationship with nature, ignoring the realities of exploitation and population pressures
idealization: romanticizes traditional agrarian societies, overlooking the fact that they were not always ecologically sustainable or free from environmental hard
Wilderness Thinking:
american conception
protect and expand national parks
reduction of human population
primitivism: hunter-gatherer
Guha Critiques:
ignores indigenous habitation fails to recognize the longstanding human presence and management of lands by indigenous communities, treating wilderness as untouched
execution of local communities: often leads to the forcible displacement of local populations in the name of conservation without considering their rights or needs
Scientific Industrialism:
future oriented
resource use
research based state control, supported by policy and activist state
scientific forestry
Guha Critiques:
disregards social and ecological costs: prioritizes rapid industrialization without considering the environmental degradation and social inequalities it produces
need based relationship with the environment: treats nature primarily as a resource to be exploited for economic gain, neglecting a sustainable, reciprocal relationship with the environment.
Modern Animals Extinction or Critical Threats to Animals
International union for conservation of nature 2024 “red list”
166,061 species (plants, animals, fungi) evaluated, 46,337 (28%) are threatened/endangered
large number (2413 species (5%) of theses species are extinct or presumed extinct
Factors that endanger animals:
habitat loss (deforestation, urban/industrial development, pollution, agricultural land)
over hunting/harvesting (illegal trade, overfishing)
introduction of invasive species (especially in Australia)
anthropogenic climate change (temperature, precipitation)
Key Anthropogenic factors:
large human populations
overconsumption
technology
socioeconomic systems (capitalism)
Key Variables for Risk of Extinction:
body size - large-bodied animals are more at risk for extinction due to susceptibility to over hunting and fishing
range size - animals living in small areas are more at risk for extinction due to habitat change, species can only exist in a specific environment
Key Question about animal extinctions:
is extinction an inevitable outcome of human interactions with animals?
how important are these biological (body size) and human (habitat change) factors in causing earlier extinctions?
is modern (industrialized) society unique in its threat to wildlife?
FIrst Case Studies: What Caused Major Extinctions?
121 genera of large Ice Age mammals in Africa, NA, SA, Asia, and Europe
8,000 mammal, bird, and reptile Pacific Island species
Importance of Case Studies
Major extinction events (on scale of modern changes)
Neither occurred with complex, large, urbanized, industrialized society.
First Case Study: The Ice Age
By end of the Pleistocene (-13 KYA), 121 species from dozens of genera of large land mammals (>44kg, megafauna) when extinct across the globe after surviving multiple prior glacial-interglacial transitions
Timing of extinction is generally correlated with the appearance of the first widespread appearance of fully modern humans
Global Extinctions:
Major extinctions in other continents (Africa 160ky, Australia 72-44 ky, Europe 50-14 kya)
Contemporary with N.A. - South America and Asia
Unusual Characteristics of North American Extinctions:
Pleistocene differs from 7 previous extinction events over last 10 my
number of extinct species (more species than normals)
types of animals that went extinct (only large bodied) - most living species are small, large animals went extinct at much higher rate than small, different than earlier extinctions
speed of extinction (fast)
appearance of new predator (humans)
How to Explain Extinctions - Key Theories (Imperfect)
human hunting (overkill) - human colonization of islands often followed large extinctions (people = extinction), clovis people were first wide-spread human across North America (13,300 yrs ago), clovis were very effective hunters of large herbivores late pleistocene extinct happened - 13,300 BP, the extinction occured so quickly that few kill sites would likely be preserved, “blitzkrieg” (lightning strike) extinction
climate change and resulting habitat collapse
Other Explanations:
extraterrestrial impact
hyperdisease
solar radiation
keystone species collapse
anthropogenic wildfire
Individual: impacts her own health
Microsystem: impacts surrounding community, pesticide runoff into the water, individuals who are chronically impacted may be unable to go to work or school
Local Government: EPA regulations of what pesticides can be used, one of the 2025 updates includes a recommendation that corn farmers follow a three-year extended rotation to reduce nitrate‐N concentration
Mass Media: Raising public awareness about potential health risks associated with pesticide exposure
Social Norms: Growing public knowledge about potential health risks associated with pesticide exposure, particularly for farmers and nearby residents, contributes to a social norm of minimizing pesticide use.
Economic System: affect
Environmental Impacts of food and agriculture:
26% of greenhouse gas emissions come from food
50% of the world’s habitable land is used for agriculture
70% of global freshwater withdrawals are used for agriculture
78% of global ocean and freshwater pollution
96% of global mammal biomass is livestock
71% fo global bird biomass is poultry livestock.
Key Issues: Is modern agriculture unique? Did earlier versions of farming change people and their environment?
Major Transformative Events: Tool Use (-3 mya), Agriculture (16,000-2000 ya), Urbanization and State Formation (6,000-3,000 ya), Industrialization (350 ya)
Lifestyle Shift 99.95% of our genus (homo sp.) history occurred as hunter-gatherers, domesticates only in last - 16,000 years (domesticate: an animal or plant adapted to have an intimate association with humans)
Types of interactions with plants and animals:
simple foraging: collecting available wild resources without modification to environment
management: increase yield of wild resources by encouraging growth and reducing competitors (clear cutting vegetation, replanting, irrigating).
horticulture: growing domesticated fruit, plants, and vegetables in small gardens (small-scale farming)
agriculture: producing food, feed, fiber, fuel, and other goods by systematic raising of domesticated plants and animals (large scale farming)
Mutualism: relationship in which both species derive benefit
Intensification of production: increase in the productive output per units of. land or labor
Low Intensification of Plant Production:
type is management of wild species, 1 to 3 years cropping duration, 20 to 25 years fallow duration, technology is simple (ex. axe, fire, sticks), labor needs are limited (land clearing, bruning, dispersal of seeds)
Medium Intensification of Plant Production:
type is horticulture, 2 to 8 year cropping duration, 6 to 10 year fallow duration, technology is simple (ace, hire, hoe, household storage), labor needs are moderate (land clearing, application of simple additives like manure, redirect surface runoff, planting and weeding)
High Intensification of Plant Production:
type is agriculture, continuous cropping duration, months to two year fallow duration, technology is complex (plough, animal traction, communal storage, terraces, canals), labor needs are heavy (land clearing, systematic planting and weeding, intensive additives like manure, constructing canals, terraces, storage facilities).
How does domestication happen?
artificial selection: human intervention in animal/plant breeding creating an animals they could live with
self selection: animals/plants develop close relationships with humans on their own
Biological and Physical Changes Resulting from Domestication
allows species to better adapt to anthropogenic (human created) environments.
increases separation from wild populations (both in space and genetically)
appearance of some specific phenotypic changes (observable difference to body)
Primary (first) changes in animal domesticates:
decreased reaction to stimuli
decreased brain size (10%-30%) and complexity and less developed sensory organs (ears, nose, and eyes)
decreased activity and aggression levels
more serotonin, less adrenaline and corticosteroids, and less developed heart, adrenal and thyroid glands
increased fertility
earlier sexual maturity, larger litters sizes, reduced seasonality of reproduction
Secondary (later) changes in animal domesticates
coloration and physiology
fur coloration (multi-color coats) and texture
shortening of snout (overbite and underbite)
changing limb or extremity proportions (tails and ears) and body size
reduced dimorphism between sexes
changes in reproductive organs (milk)
Primary changes in plant domesticates:
improved success in germination
higher rates of and predictability for gemiation
uniform timing of germination and ripening
change in life cycle (seed: perennial to annual; vegetables; annuals to biennial)
changes in structure of edible reproductive parts
increased size of reproductive organs (seeds, fruit, roots, etc)
lower toxicity (less self defense)
greater energy allocation to edible parts (more fruits, roots, stems)
Example:
Wild Corn (Teosinte)
small and few kernels
seeds drop easily (shattering)
germinate and ripen at different rates
Domesticated Corn (Maize)
large and many kernels
seeds do not drop
uniform germination and ripening.
How quick can domesticates appear?
experiments in selective breeding (selecting for tamest or specific sex ratio)
dmitri belyaev - soviet fox farm project (1959 to present)
Three Pathways to domestications (Melinda Zeder 2006)
Commensal domesticates (self-domesticated): species adapt to lives with humans,
ex. dogs, cats, pigs, chicken, turkey
Prey domesticates (artificial domestications): humans manage limited food, ex. goat, sheep, cattle, llama, reindeer
Directed domesticates (artificial domestications): humans select species for second dary resources (food and nonfood).
Farming (potential benefits)
increase productivity for unit of land
possibly create surplus
feed more people
control location of important resources
non food benefits:
fiber, labor, donsiments, narcotics, ornamnetations/containers
food that is easily consumable and digestible by weaning children.
Outcomes of Neolithic Lifestyle:
Domesticates: european adopted the early near east domesticates (Plants: rye, barley, wheat, peas, lentils, Animals: cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, Eventually: ducks pigeons dates, apples). No indigenous wild sheep or goats so they had to be imported.
Neolithic Settlement Changes: mesolithic settlements, mostly along coastlines, lakes, rivers, or forest margins - environmentally complex settings (did not live in many areas occupied during Upper Paleolithic). Neolithic occupations shift from classic Mesolithic areas
Artifacts and Features: above ground rectilinear structures (south - stone foundations with mud bricks, north - structure are made of wood and daub, ceramic technology, blade-based lithic technology (high reliance on non-local sources), use of polished axes, new burial practices
Genetic Evidence (Richard 2002)
studies of modern and ancient European and Middle Eastern populations (mtDNA, Y chromosome, Autosomal DNA)
results complex and not always easily interpretable
local mesolithic h/g genetically different from initial neolithic farmers from near east
mesolithic and neolithic groups similar (in different ways) to modern europeans (local mesolithic H/G more similar to Northern Europe, Migrant Neolithic Farmers more similar to Cyprus and Greek people.
Implications of Genetic Evidence:
first farmers were migrant group from Near East (migration) but local h/g groups survived and adopted farming (diffusion of idea)
initial migration of farmers may have leap-frogged into certain areas (non continuous expansion) and acceptance of farming regionally different
expansion into mediterranean likely involving Neolithic groups from Near East moving in and taking over.
Expansion into central European involved acculturated Balkan farmers moving into new territories.
Trends in Spread of Neolithic Lifestyle
local farmers move to edges of Middle East (modern day turkey, greece, and then to Europe)
local balkans groups adopt farming ny intermarrying with small Neolithic groups
Middle East farmers move into Mediterranean (leapfrog)
Balkan farmers expand into central Europe (Germany and Poland; incorporating locals and intermarrying to create more farmers)
Iberian farmers move into Northern Africa; some intermarry but others do not; locals reject plant domesticates but take up animal domesticates (goats).
Mediterranean males move into eastern Europe (explorers?) and integrate with local communities
Local Scandinavian groups became farmers by trade
European Neolithic Conclusions:
rapid adoption of farming lifestyle across Europe
farming represented dramatic changes in lifestyle and culture (new identity, behaviors, beliefs, and human-environment interactions)
reason for adoption regionally different (new people and adoption of ideas/technology
farming results in increased population and greater cultural complexity
rituals and ceremonies important for integrating different groups
social conflict and environmental degradation results
Precontact North America was “Garden of Eden”
Native Americans had pristine forests (probably myth)
Modern Perspective on “Garden of Eden”
At time of contact with Europeans, American landscape was rich, it was not “untouched”
Prior to contact Native American populations were:
very large (millions)
intensive agriculturalists
heavily managed their landscape (fire, selective harvesting of certain plant and animal species
caused localized areas of habitat destruction.
Fire and Environment:
fire is a natural part of all ecosystems from tropics to tundra
Global ecosystems just differ in frequency of burning
In dry environments (chaparral, grasslands, xeric forests (ponderosa pine, pinyon juniper, oak)), wild fire is a dominant process for maintaining ecosystem health
Key issues for understanding anthropogenic use of fire is to identify the key local environmental factos that influence nature fire frequency
Anthropogenic fire differs from natural fires in terms of seasonality, frequency, intensity, and ignition patterns
Climate and Fire Regime:
Aridity: dryness and increase wind speed increase both intensity and frequency and fire.
Temperatures: Codl decrease fires or favor low-intensity fires (burns undergrowth), while warming increases fire frequency and larger fires (bruns crowns of trees)
Biomass: weeter period produce more vegetation which results n more fuel to burn
Key point: no single global connection between climate and fire (regionally different)
Anthropogenic Fire: Season
Summer: natural
increased vegetation
increased aridity
increased lightning strikes
Spring and Fall: Human
mostly associated with agricultural activities or management of fields
Anthropogenic fire: Frequency
Missouri Ozark Mountains: Natural Fires occur less than once per 4000 km squared per year, human set fires occur 108 times per 4000 km squared
USFS Southwest Division: Natural fires account for 12% of all fires, while human set fires account for 88% of all fires
California Kings Canyon NP: a natural fire occurs every 25 to 50 years, humans set a fire every nine years
(Introduction of sheep herding (browsers ate understory vegetation and reduce fuel) reduced fires
Anthropogenic Fire: Ignition and intensity
Natural (where lightning strikes)
preferentially occur in ridge tops (high altitude settings)
small in size (burn out quickly
Anthropogenic (where people are)
preferentially in lowlands or alluvial valleys
often large in size (slow to burn out)
Use of Fire as Management Tool
agriculture and land clearing
expand biodiversity (create new combination of wild species and increase species abundance
create/maintain open grasslands and meadows
encourage fire-tolerant tree species
tool in hunting and warfare
use in ritual practive
Burning as Aid in Farming:
Slash-and-burn farming -
cutting down forest vegetation and burning after it dries
opens new areas for farming
temporary increase in soil nutrient (phosphorus)
reduces harmful weeds, pests, and insects.
Is Intensive Farming Sustainable?
Key Attributes of Intensive Production:
Heavy investment of additives
Wide-spread production (many large farms)
Mono-cropping
Frequency - Scale - Selectivity (increases human impacts)
Is intensive farming always problematic, or is it just the scale we do today?
Is agriculture most detrimental in marginal environments?
What are the social and environmental costs of mono-cropping when bad things happen?
Importance of Southwest:
early diffusion of maize out of MEsoamerica into North America
Local development of other domesticates
Highly advanced non-state societies
continuity to historical native peoples
rapid changes in population, technology, economy had major effects on human impacts
Culture History of American Southwest
Paleoindian (22,000-8,000 years ago)
Archaic (8000-4000 years ago)
- mobile H/G) -
Early agricultural period (4000-1400 years ago)
- incipient horticulture -
Formative Period (1400-500 years ago)
Historic/Modern Period (last 500 years)
- intensive agriculture -
Archaic Sites: this is a period when early hunting and gathering people lived in the southwest under modern environmental conditions (desert)
Archaic Period: appearance of ground stone milling tools, more intensive use of wild plants
Difficulties in Studying Archaic in SW: very few sites, poor temporal (dating) control - mostly stone tools and projectile points found at sites - little direct evidence about subsistence or settlement, overall conclusions: few people on landscape but living highly mobile h/g lifestyle.
Early Agricultural Period: first adoption of Mesoamerican crops (4100-1500 years BP) - maize/corn, beans, squash, gourd, amaranth, and cotton. Continued use of a suite of local cultivars (local wild plants that were managed) - devils claw, tepary beans, panic grass, agave, little barley, and beeweed.
Slow Adoption of Domesticates:
Corn - 4100 BP
Squash - 3000 BP
Common Bean - 2200 BP
Turkey - 2000 BP (may involve local wild birds)
Cotton - 1500 BP
Key Point: Gradual and individual adoption of domesticates
Change in Use and Importance of Maize:
Initial adoption - limited production, minimal dependence (h/g still key source of food), corn roasted, minimal nutritional benefits
Established Use - intensification of production and dependence, grinding corns (eaten as gruel, similar to grits), more nutritional benefits.
Results of Early Agriculture (4000-1500 years ago)
increased populations (more and larger sites)
increased sedentism (staying in one place for a long time)
trade and exchange networks increase in scale and intensity
focus of settlement along major river valleys - irrigation agriculture
first use of ceramics
Formative cultures of the southwest (500 to 1500 years ago)
intensive maize agriculture (massive intensive production)
advanced ceramic technology
large dense sedentary villages (cities appear)
extensive trade networks
high social complexity - craft specialization, ritual specialization
architectural changes needed to handle large human population - pithouse to above ground structures, defensive structures
Key Changes During Early Agricultural Formative Period Transition:
Increasing - sedentism (more year-round settlement), population size (higher density of humans), reliance on corn (increase in agricultural activities)
Frequency - Scale - Selectivity (increasing human impacts)
Impact of Agricultural Lifestyle
Action: construction of canals, agricultural field, hunting and structures
Direct IMpact: clearing of natural vegetations, deforestation, over-hunting, and replanting of valuable wild species ( agave)
Indirect IMpact: increased salinity of soil, population change in wildlife
Deforestation:
Kiet siel in Tsegi Canyon, AZ
150 residents in late AD 1200s
total depletion of aspen and box elder trees within 20 years
Depletion of local resources - wood, corn, deer, and rabbit transported 30-65 miles from its source.
Social Change Conclusions:
During Late Formative there was increased perception of “danger” (inadequate crop yields, climate, social)
population moved together and constructed “protected settlements”
large settlements and multi-ethnic communities created unstable and major impacts on landscape.
social instability combined with climate and anthropogenic lead to further population migration and more admixing.
What is a civilization?
Archaeological Definition: urbanized, ranked state-level society.
Rank: Social positions arranged along hierarchical scale
Urbanized: Large (>5000 people) population centers with high sedentary residence
State: Group of people over a wide geographic space organized under a single government or social system.
What are Key Attributes of a Civilization?
social stratification
centralized control of key activities and behaviors of societal members
specialization of activities by members
ritual and/or religious elaboration of personal activities
instability of centralized system
Social Stratification:
two or more social.cultural levels within society
elite group has extensive sconomic, social, and political power in a society
Power: the ability to act in a certain way or influence one’s environmental (social and physical) based on a social position.
Authority: social sanction that says that power is legitimate.
Status and Rank:
Status - the rights, privileges, duties, and power held due to a recognized social position
Ascribed status - assigned to an individual at birth, without regard to abilities.
Achieved status - earned through actions or ability of individual
Central Control (power of elites)
economic: influence over production and distribution of goods and wealth
social: development and maintenance of stratified social/religious systems
political: ability to maintain (by force if necessary) established social and ideological systems.
Key Issue: central control may change goals and actions of these parts of society
Specializations in Social Activities
Social tasks performed by specially trained personnel:
government officials
farmers
military/police
artisans and craftsman
technicians
Key Point: people in these different jobs do not have tot work for centralized power.
Ritual or Religious Elaboration of Personal Activities
Purpose: “ceremony” legitimizes or standardizes central control or social order
Examples:
election
driver’s test
marriage ceremony
graduation ceremony
shopping patterns
“Life History” of Civilization:
Civilizations go through specific life “stages”
Birth: formation of interaction network that allows for central control over political, social, economic control
Life: maintenance (and growth) of network
Decline and collapse: decay and failure of network that allows centralized control
Lifespans of civilizations are often just decades or centuries. The longest existing state today is only 350 years old.
Physical Indicators of Social Collapse:
The dissolution of centralized institutions result in:
reduced exchange of goods (especially long-distance trade)
stop building monuments or hierarchical settlements
settlements and infrastructure are abandoned/decay
there is no longer cultural uniformity in construction or behavior.
Village Farmers:
Greatly reduced mobility
semi-permanent settlement along river valleys with logistic forays to upland camps
increased reliance on domesticated plants
hunting secondary food
introduction of ceramic technology
Preclassic: Olmex (precursor to civilization_
relatively low population density (-50 to 1200 people/site)
appearance of occupational specialization
extensive trade network
high social stratification
constructions of monuments
earthen pyramids and mounts
Stone Olmec “heads”
Public Works: Olmec Earthen Mounds
Key point - elite organized mass labor project directed to religious realm (areas of worship, communal gathering, burials, and elite presence)
Preclassic: Olmec
settlements were city states
independent policies headed by powerful regional chieftains and elites
high competition (economic.military) among settlement
However elites’ control of religious order and political life created unified cultural system over much larger area
certain sites appear to be ceremonial centers
Late Pre-Classic/Classic Period (states)
rapid increase in populations
formation of huge urban areas
up to -8000 to 60,000 people per settlement
leadership of urban centers were by hereditary kings
important religious and social leader
Limited political integration among urban centers.
Post-Classic Changes to States:
changes in social and political structure variously described as either:
failure of social system - “decline”, “collaspe”, “crumble”
reorganization of system “transition”, “transformation”, “devolution”
Everyone agrees the magnitude of change varied by region and site
Expressions of Change:
Smaller dispersed sites and fewer ceremonial centers
decline in populations
elites did not attract as large of a following
decline in elite-based monuments (selae, pyramids, temples)
decrease in social stratification
decentralization of power and influence
warfare and conflict
Classic Period Monumental Constructions:
Classic period sites often associated with construction and use of large temples and monuments in the city centers
Implications-
massive labor base subservient to elite
elites direct work
massive surplus
Post-Classic Constructions
fewer and small temples and monuments build
interruption of building projects
Implication -
Loss of elite influence and/or surplus
Other Expressions of Change:
Abandonment of Long Count calendar
loss of shared ritual system
Decline in regional trade
weaker social and economic networks
weaker influence of elite on regional scale
disruptions due to inter-site conflict.
Key point - both represent reduction of contact among groups and disintegration of social bonds among people
Decline in Trade: wide-spread movement of trade shifts from long-distance exchange to more local trade.
Collapse = Loss of support for leadership
Populations did not die off
masses felt it necessary or wise to follow direction of new elites.
Key Factors Underlying Societal Change:
climate change
drought condition led to decline in agricultural productivity and portable water availability
Anthropogenic environmental impacts due to resource use decisions (not just populations)
over-farming caused increase in soil erosion, loss of soil fertility, deforestation
increase in warfare
too much fighting
Culture History -
Neolithic: foothills egalitarian villages
Chalcolithic: cities in river valleys with social inequality arising from the integration of economics and religious systems
Bronze Age: further expansion of social inequality and political integration of multiple cities (later disintegration)
Chalcolithic: Precursor to State
Large population centers (cities) appear
Mass production of goods and food ( economy of goods and workers)
integration of ideology and commerce under elites control
Clear social stratification appears
elite vs. servant class appears
specialize work groups: priests, crafts, farmers
Key Point: Maybe not formal state due to limited political integration
Attributes of Chalcolithic Period
first settlement of Tigris and Euphrates valleys (dry land farming not possible naturally)
irrigation system makes farming possible in desert, and implies:
some social stratification: managers vs. workers
people from multiple settlements integrated into one cooperative group (but political independent)
settlement size increases (larger populations)
settlements were fortified with defensive walls (threat of violence?)
power accumulated by temple leaders
Formation of Cities
major population center
example: Uruk 10k to 50k people in 800 years (forced migration or new opportunities)
small moblie herding groups appeared in foothilds
Temples were central power within city
priests were lead
destination for pilgrims and worshipers
Temples also center for commerce and trade
markets for farm products and other goods
Regional center
surrounding towns contribute labor and food to construction
Temple Leaders and the Economy
Temples provided organization to ealy settlements in river valleys
had high degree of social authroity (represented divine justice and authority)
directed work teams to build temples and irrigation canals
likely “owned” a lot of land around the settlement
Over time their power increased
“rented” land to farmers (collected “tax”)
acted as mediators or judges in disputes (irrigation, civil)
Early Bronze Age: State Societies
Federation of 12 to 14 major settlements along river valley (total population - 100,000) with Ur head (Sumerian Civilization) (centralize political control)
development of written record: Cuneiform
social hierarchy expands greatly with clear material correlates
Hierarchy
God-king
noble class and wealthy merchant class
artisans and landed farmers
slaves (war captives) and disposed farmers
Trade Networks
Elaborate trade network (Iran, Afghanistan, India, Nile, and Greece) results in accumulation of wealth in hands of few leaders
Participation in trade enticed some poorer city states to join with richer cities (other were conquered)
Key traits in state formation: militarism and administration
Trade included necessary items, such as obsidian and food, as well as luxury goods, such as seashell and gold
Temples were center of trade and food redistribution center.
Mortuary Difference (Appearance of Elites)
Pre-5000 years ago (pre states): little differential treatment among burials
Sumerian (states) burials: highly differential treatment of human burial (status in life reflected status in birth)
Three different “types “of burial at Ur
1800 burials of all segments of society
16 royal tombs
richly decorated “merchant” tombs
common graves
Post-Sumerian History
around 4350 years ago, federation among city-states collapsed
some urban areas abandoned
surviving urban leaders begin constant warfare
about 3500 years ago, leaders of Assur, established Akkadian empire over most of Mesopotamia
integration through military conquest and political/economic alliances
collapsed again around 2500 years ago
What is the difference between subsistence farming and mass production farming?
shows how centralized control affects daily behavior, personal subsistence, direction of wider economy, and impacts to the environment.
Neolithic (pre-state) Subsistence Farming:
mixed cropping
goal: avoid total failure
farmers choose crops that best survive bad times (barley)
long-term storage key to survive in bad times
currency is calories of food
Bronze Age (state) Mass Production:
monocropping
goal: maximize returns
leaders choose crops that best produce processed goods (olive, wine, wheat, sheep)
long-term storage unimportant, get as much product to market
currency is convert food to trade items (copper, gold, fabric)
Centralized Control and Carrying Capacity:
definition: the number of people an area can support given the quality of the natural environment and the level of technology of the population.
Agriculture Transition:
locally-produced subsistence farming dominate strategy prior to state formations (before state: food for feeding families)
after states shift toward orchard cultivation and mass production of plants and animals (after state: food for commerce)
state agriculture designed for production of processed goods for trade not local subsistence
temple elite gain increasing control over agriculture and trade networks
Arboreal Cultivation Key Point: Olive trees, Grape trees, and Fig trees all produce edible fruit, but state farming directed towards producing processed goods, olive oil, wine, and dried figs.
Arboreal Production for Trade:
raw fruits (except olives) easily consumed but hard to store and trasnport (bulky and perishable)
emphasis on processed goods for trade
increased elite control of production, processing, and distribution
most of population were less self sufficient
Shift in Grain Production Through State Period:
decrease in basic subsistence farming, shift to mass production for trade
increase in production of less efficient grains
increase in crops for farm animal feed
increase in crops for processed goods
Barley
Barley major earlies crop for human and animal food
needs less water
tolerant to saline soils
resistant to insects
has short growing season
Pre-states, easily edible naked variety most popular
post-states, inedible hulled variety most popular
Key point: indicates increase importance of animal production
eating barley: highly nutritious dense seeds require extended exposure at high heat
proper. cooking: long duration boiling of porridge or soups (hard to store)
Livestock Changes:
Pre-state: goat were preferred livestock
hardy animal and well adapted to environment
state: sheep become dominant
more meat
renewable, trade item (wool)
Climate Change during Bronze Age:
period of high climatic variability (shift in wet to dry cycles)
rise of states during wet periods
conditions encourage high yield from farming
high river volumes support irrigation
collapse of state during dry period
conditions limited yield from farming
low river volume and channel down cutting reduced irrigation
In Addition to Climate Change:
climate conditions alone do not explain social change in Bronze Age
Pre-state farming systems anticipated bad times and planned for them (self-suffieiceint)
state farming system designed for good times and elss prepared for problems
in bad periods, elites must respond quickly and direct resources to support masses in bad times
if too slow of have limited resources, the system can collapse.
Prehistory of Great Britain:
lower/middle paleolithic (-250-44 kya): periodic occupation by pre-modern humans (very little impact)
upper paleolithic/mesolithic (44-7 kya): modern human hunter-gatherers (very little impact)
Neolithic/Bronze age (7-3.8 kya): complex village farmers (major regional impact)
Iron age (3.8-2 kya): Celtic (Germanic) chiefdoms (feudal lords) and iron smelting (major regional impact)
Roman Empire Conquest (2-1.5 kya) (global impact)
Early Neolithic Farming
Practiced forest-fallow agriculture
modest populations practices slash and burn farming
then left farm plots fallow for number of years and created new arable plot
Results
limited deforestation, but mostly modification of woodland ecosystems species abundance (decline in elms)
Late Neolithic/Bronze Age
Increased populations
more people, larger scale subsistence farming
increase social complexity and first mass labor projects (megaliths)
more raw materials needed for construction
Environment imapcts associated with increased population and complexity
land clearing in uplands created upland bogs (fens) and increased erosion
Formation of Lowland Bogs - natural formation
natural bogs formed - 10,000 years ago after glaciers disappeared
former glacial lakes in lowland areas fill with dead plants (limited decomposition due to low temperature and constant moisture)
eventually, the lake completely fills with peat, and can even rise above the level of the former lake (raised bog)
Bog: waterlogged acidic soils composed of partially decomposed plant material (peat)
Formation of Upland Bogs - anthropogenic feature
unlike nature bogs, uplan blanket bogs only appear after 5700 years ago and in areas of human settlement
formation not associated climate change, but result of human deforestation
upland bogs only form where ancient societies clear cut forests
anthropogenic landform
Iron Age
shift from farming village societies to Celtic chiefdoms (elites)
shifts ina griculture production
prior farming for domestic subsistence
in iron age fuedal leader (elite) shifted to mass produce
Rapid population increase
14,000 to 2 million people
Greater evidence of militarism and fortification
Iron Age Deforestation Cause
Increased pastoralism
wool needed as trade item important, so forests cleared to allow for more grazing for sheep
Militarism
construction of fortification and defensive structures used forests resources for construction materials
Larger human population and introduction iron smelting lead to extensive woodland clearing for fuel
prior use of metal (e.g. copper) were small scale and requireed high heat for purification (less wood needed)
Iron Smelting
Chemical purification of process that uses heat and carbon to transform oxidized ores into pure metal
require large quantity of fuel (charcoal): 325 kg (717 lbs.) of charcoal for smelting and working 1 kg of iron
Smelting Charcoal
Charcoal: blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from wood and other organics (1 unit charcoal requires 4 parts wood)
Result of Neolithic/Bronze and Iron Age Changes
previously small, egalitarian native populations transformed by demographic (more people and larger settlements), political (increased equality), and technological changes (iron smelting)
Landscape witnesses major changes
huge habitat loss (50% of forest gone)
huge anthropogenic landforms (cities, agricultural field) were created and previously habitable land lost to upland.
Roman Period
First invaded by in 55 BC and permanent settlement established 44 AD to AD 140
Romans enter deforested land (-50% gone)
Results
deforestation continues
agriculture and construction need
increased warfare leads to decline in local population along northern border, and resulted in reforestation in some areas
large-scale metal mining was new impact with huge impact
Roman Cities and Settlements
colonized and controlled land that is now England and Wales
Physically separated its colony from a hostile native population in what is now Scotland and Ireland
colonizers establish settlements (London, Cambridge, Dover, etc.) that still exist today
connected Britain to a global empire for first time
Frontier Forts
wood needed as construction material (continued deforestation tred) and forests for new agricultural land
borders with other native groups functioned as “no-man-lands” where some forests regrowth
moderate effect on environment
Mineral Extraction
Britain major source of iron and lead, as well as some gold, tin, and silver,
earlier mineral extraction for copper and iron has occurred by impacts fairly minor (smelting had big effect)
Romans organized industrial-scale hydraulic mining operations
need huge quantities of raw material for trade
similar (but not larger) operations occurred in Spain and Portugal
Smelting contributed aerosol pollution to global air quality
major effect on environment
Hydraulic mining: flowing water dislodges ore from surrounding sediments or remove over-burden
Roman Hydraulic mining: artificial water channels and channels constructed to create erosion to expose mineral deposits
Roman Iron Smelting: Roman empire produced - 82,500 ton of iron produced per year (2,250 tons just from Great Britain )
Mineral Extraction Global Impact:
roman period smelting contributed pollution (lead and sulfur) to global air quality
first evidence of global impact to environment
Summary of Roman Impacts
settlement and farming changes little from Iron Age occupation
romans settled an area with high levels of forest clearance (-50%)
Contributed to deforestation by continued massive forest clearing for agriculture and construction
later, increased warfare led to decline in local population along northern border, and this resulted in reforestation in some places
large scale metal mining new and most extensive impact
Modern Human Impacts
climate change
habitat destruction
species extinction
resource depletion and over-hunting
atmospheric pollution
land degradation, pollution, and erosion
intensive farming and genetic engineering
overpopulation and urban sprawl
nanotechnology
nuclear issues.
Past Human Impacts
climate change (mesoamerica, pacific)
habitat destruction (all)
species extinction (pacific island)
resource depletion and over hunting (near east, iron age britain, american sw, pacific islands)
atmospheric pollution (roman)
land degradation, pollution and erosion (all)
intensive farming and genetic engineering (neolithic, middle east, mesoamerica, iron age)
overpopulation and urban sprawl (middle east and mesoamerica)
nanotechnology
nuclear issues
Comparison of Past and Modern Environmental Impacts
Modern and Past impacts general the same in terms of:
type of human impacts on local and regiona lscale of impact
pacific island avifauna extinctions
mesoamerican damage to rain forests
british iron age deforestation
human suffering arises from anthropogenic change (economically and politically disadvantaged people will suffer the most)
Continuity with Past Societies
human biology and intelligence
modern technological change results from accumulated knowledge not changes in intelligence
Human social organization
comparable levels of social complexity, inequality, and task specialization
impacts often related to power and authority
Reliance on technology
while the technology has changed dramatically, our reliance has not changed much in 40k years
Global colonization
most of the globe has been settled for >15,000 years
moder exceptionalism is not as great as many people think
Differences with Past Societies
Modern period differs from past in terms of:
demographic structure and technological/energy foundations
effects of anthropogenic changes occuring are greater scale than natural variations in environment
ubiquity of local and regional scale impacts
global scale of impacts