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A TIMELINE OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ● Homo Habilis ○ Called “Handy Man” ○ Lived 1.5 to 2.4 million years ago ○ Used stones as simple tools and ate variety of foods ● Homo Erectus ○ Called “ Upright Human” ○ Lived 300,00 to 1.6 million years ago ○ Used fire ○ Made stone axes and chopping tools ● Homo Sapiens ○ The wise human ○ Also called as the Neanderthals ○ Lived 30,000 to 230,000 years ago ○ Could speak and made more complicated tools ● Homo sapiens sapiens ○ Modern human ○ Have been around for 120,000 years ○ Became more advanced about 40,000 years ago EARLY TECHNOLOGY ● The Stone Age (2.5 mya - 3,000 BC) ○ Divided into three periods : Paleolithic (old stone age), Mesolithic (middle stone age), Neolithic (new stone age). ○ Refers to the gradual progress of tool making from the earliest coarse pebble to more advanced tools. ○ An eventful transition from hunting and gathering to farming and food production. ● The Paleolithic Period (2.5 mya - 10,000 BC) ○ Early humans lived in caves or simple huts and were hunters and gatherers. ● The Mesolithic Period (10,000 BC - 8,000BC) ○ Used polished small stone tools and sometimes crafted with points ○ Lived nomadically in camps near rivers. ○ Agriculture was introduced during this time. ● The Neolithic Period (8,000-3,000 BC) ○ Switched from hunter/gatherers to agriculture and food production. ○ Started to settle in the plains STONE AGE BREAKTHROUGHS IN HUNTER/GATHERER TOOLS ● Sharpened Stones (Oldowan tools) ○ 2.6 million years ago ○ Basically stone cores with flakes removed from them to create a sharpened edge ○ One of the earliest stone tools found in Ethiopia ● Stone handaxe (Acheulean tools) ○ 1.6 million years ago ○ Named after St. Acheul on the Somme river in France. ○ Used for striking flakes off longer rock cores to shape them into thinner less rounded implements. ● A new kind of knapping (Levallois technique) ○ 400,000 to 200,000 years ago ○ Or prepared core technique ○ Involved striking pieces off a stone core to produce a tortoise shell like shape. ● Cutting blades (Aurignacian industry) ○ 80,000 to 40,000 years ago ○ Detaching long rectangular flakes from a stone core to form blades ● Small sharp microblades (Magdalenian culture) ○ 11,000 to 17,000 years ago ○ Known as geometric microliths or stone blades that have been shaped into triangles, crescents and other geometric forms. ● Axes, celts, chisels (Neolithic tools) ○ Around 12,000 years ago ○ Not only pleasing to look at, they were also more efficient to use and easier to sharpen when they became dull. THE BRONZE AGE (3,000 - 1,300 B.C) ● Metalworking advances were made such as bronze, copper, and tin alloy were discovered. ● Helped spark innovations including the ox-drawn plow and the wheel. ● Also brought advances in architecture and art WHAT IS THE FERTILE CRESCENT? ● Often called as the “Cradle of Civilization” ● The region in the middle east which curves like a quarter moon shape MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZATION ● Mesopotamia : ancient region between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers, part of the fertile crescent ● Home to the earliest human civilizations and agricultural revolution ● Early inhabitants lived in circular mud brick dwellings and began domesticating sheeps and pigs around 11,000 to 9,000 B.C ● Nineveh, one of the oldest mesopotamian cities ● Tell Abu Hureyra, Syria - earliest farming evidence ● Mesopotamian advancements : developed irrigation, aqueducts, temples, pottery, A.D ABROGAR banking, credit, property ownership, and the first codes of law. THE SUMERIANS ● Sumer - first settled 4500 - 4000 BC ● Ubaid People - developed farming, cattle raising, weaving,carpentry, pottery and beer. ● Uruk - first true country ● Surrounded by walls, villages outside, worship of local deities. ● SUMERIAN INVENTIONS ○ Mass-produced Pottery - Enabled production of large quantities of items like containers , an ancient precursor to Tupperware. ○ Writing - Used writing to track goods not for literature or history. The writing system known as cuneiform was adopted by other civilizations. ○ Hydraulic Engineering - harnessed the overflow of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to irrigate and fertilize their fields. Built complex canal systems with dams made of reed, palm trunks and mud to regulate water flow. ○ The Chariot - for ceremonial or military use around 3000 BC not for everyday travel due to rough terrain. ○ The Plow - essential for farming. Farmers recited a prayer to Ninkilim, goddess of field rodents to protect their grain. ○ Textile Mills - the first to weave fabric on an industrial scale. ○ Mass-produce Bricks - created clay brick molds to compensate for a shortage of stones and timber. ○ Metallurgy - the first to use copper for tolls and art. Metallurgists used reed heated furnaces and hand or foot bellows. ○ Mathematics - developed a numbering system based on units of 60. Their system laid the groundwork for future mathematical calculations. THE AKKADIANS ● Became dominant force in Mesopotamia and the first dynastic rulership (Akadian Empire). ● Created the first united empire in Mesopotamia, ruled by hereditary monarchy. ● Sargon the Great of Akkad - first ruler of the Akkadian empire which is sometimes considered as the first empire in history. THE ASSYRIANS ● Considered as the greatest ancient Mesopotamian civilization with advanced military and bureaucratic systems. ● Agricultural Technology : canals were built along farm edges to collect rainwater, preventing floods. ● Assyrian Architecture : built temples and palaces from stone, often in ziggurat structures. THE BABYLONIANS ● Under Hammurabi, Babylon became a powerful city. ● Code of Hammurabi - one of the earliest legal codes. ● YBC 7289 - approximates √2 to five decimal places. Tablets cover fractions, algebra, quadratic and cubic equations, etc. ● The Neo Babylonian empire perfected the use of arches and domes in architecture. ● Babylonian art was influenced by : scarce stone and abundant mud. ● Kuduroes - large ceramic reliefs and stone pieces to mark farm boundaries. ● THE HANGING GARDENS OF BABYLON ○ Built by Nebuchadnezzar ll ○ One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient world. THE EGYPTIANS ● Was the leading civilization in the Mediterranean ● Egypts grandeur has captivated archaeologists and historians creating the field of Egyptology. ● AGRICULTURE & ARCHITECTURE ○ Shadoofs - the water wheels work the shadoofs. A counterweight system, a long pole with a bucket on one end and weight on the other. ○ Nilometers - used to predict flood levels. ○ Rameses ll- an outstanding architectural marvel, the Abu Simbel. ● MEDICINE & DENTISTRY ○ Was intimately tied to magic. ○ Ebers Papyrus - a text of 110 pages treating ailments such as trauma, cancer, heart disease, etc. ○ Edwin Smith Papyrus - oldest known work on surgical techniques shows detailed knowledge of anatomy and physiology. ○ London Medical Papyrus - combines practical medical skill with magical spells for the treatment of eye problems to miscarriages. THE IRON AGE ● Making tools and weapons from irons and steel. A.D ABROGAR ● The metal was seen as more precious than gold and wrought iron was easier to manufacture than bronze. THE PERSIAN EMPIRE ● Established their empire at a time after humans had learned to make steel. ● They also fought on horseback. The first civilization to develop a armored cavalry. ● The first Persian Empire founded by Cyrus the Great became one of the largest empires in history. ● Was a cradle of science in ancient times. ● CONTRIBUTIONS ○ QANAT - a water management system used for irrigation. ○ Battery (Baghdad Battery) - used for electroplating. ○ Windmill - used to grind grain and pump water for irrigation. ○ Mathematics (Muhammad Ibn Musa-al Khwarazmi) - created the Logarithm table. ○ Astronomy (Abu Arrayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni) - wrote an astronomical encyclopedia which discussed the possibility that the earth might rotate around the sun. “Little Cloud” an apt description of the slightly wispy appearance of a galactic neighbour. ○ Physics (Abu Ali al-Hassan) - known as the father of optics. Correctly stated that vision results from light that is reflected into the eye by an object. THE GREEK CIVILIZATION ● From Greece was born philosophy, drama, western artistic aesthetics, etc. ● Prospered through agriculture, producing surplus for trade and export. ● Perioeci - the people who did the most agriculture work in the middle class social class. ● Used iron tipped ploughs for farming. ● Main crops : wheat (emmer & durum), hulled barley. ● ARCHITECTURE ○ Created iconic building ○ Emphasis on simplicity, proportion, perspective and harmony. ○ Preferred stones : limestone with marble stucco ○ Temple of the Muses - one of the cultural developments of Greeks was the museum. ● SOME NOTABLE GREEKS IN THE FIELD OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY ○ Thales of Miletus - “first scientist” the first person to investigate the basic principles. ○ Democritus of Abdera - founder of the Atomic Theory. ○ Hippocrates - father of the medicine. ○ Plato - known for his Dialogues and for founding his Academy north of Athens. ○ Aristotle - he developed the concept of life force or vitalism - the idea that life is due to a force beside the ordinary working of chemistry and physics. ○ Theophrastus of Eresus - father of Botany. Writer of 227 treaties. ● Greek natural philosophy is often called “pre scientific” since it relied on contemplation or observation but not on experimentation. THE ROMANS ● Was built upon the tradition of Greek natural philosophy. ● Better known for engineering than theoretical science. ● Rotary Motion - use of treadmill for powering cranes and other heavy lifting operations. ● Vitruvius -the first century-BCE roman engineer who gave an account on watermills. ● Terra sigillata - good quality pottery available throughout their empire through the manufacture and trade of the standardized red ware. ● SOME NOTABLE ROMANS IN THE FIELD OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY ○ Cato - the famous orator who wrote a valuable treatise which gave advice on how to run a good state. ○ Lucretius - wrote De serum nature on the major Greek works of atomist philosophy. ○ Vitruvius - wrote the De architectura, an influential work on architecture. ○ Galen - became a physician to emperors after starting his career administering medical aid to gladiators. ○ Cladius Ptolemy - taught that the earth was the center of the universe. ■ Geocentric Theory - earth was the center of the universe and supported by the Church ■ The Ancient View of the Universe ● Immovable ● The center of the universe ● Christianity taught that God had deliberately placed earth at the center. A.D ABROGAR THE FALL OF ROME ● Rome’s fall ended the ancient world and the Middle Ages were born. ● These “Dark Ages” brought the end to much that was Roman. ● Population dropped, literacy virtually disappeared and Greek knowledge was lost. ● Knowledge was suppressed by orthodox Christianity in the Byzantine Empire. . ● The millennium after the Western Roman Empire’s collapse including the dark ages. ● The Teutonic Tribe ○ Brought advanced technology to western Europe. ○ Iron Ploughshares - these tribes has strong iron ploughshares enabling systematic settlement of forested lowlands ○ Barbarians - the invaders arrived as colonizers seen by Romanized western Europeans. Their invasion disrupted trade, industry and town life but also brought innovation and vitality. ● Art & Architecture ○ Devotion to the church expressed through cathedrals and monasteries. ○ 10th-13th century cathedrals built in Romanesque style (ex. Porto Cathedral (Portugal) & Speyer Cathedral (Germany). ○ Around 1200, Gothic architecture emerged, appearing weightless compared to Romanesque architecture. ● Population Growth in the Middle Ages ○ High middle ages (1000-1300) : Massive population growth due to advancements in farming technology. ● Technology in the Middle Ages Drives Growth ○ Saw significant technological innovation, contrary to stereotypes of the Dark Ages. ● New Methods of Land Use in the Middle Ages ○ Two-field Agriculture - half the land plowed, half left fallow with animals for soil enrichment. THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE ● Eastern neighbour of medieval Europe, survived 1,000 years after the Roman Empire’s western collapse. ● Byzantine Science & Technology ○ Warfare ■ Hand-trebuchet - staff sling on a pole used by Emperor Phocas to disrupt enemy lines ■ Counterweight trebuchet - more powerful than traction trebuchet used by Emperor Komnesos ■ Greek Fire - invented by Kailinkos, liquid fire used by the Byzantine navy. Cheirosphon was an early flamethrower for ground troops. ■ Grenades - appeared during the reign of Leo lll, ignited by fire arrows or before throwing. ■ Beacon System - transmitted messages from the Caliphate border to Constantinople. ● Architecture ○ Cross in-square architectural form used in church construction. ○ Pendentive dome - circular dome over a square room ● Mathematics ○ Papyrus of Akhmin (7th century) - early important work on arithmetic, dealing with fractions & problems. ○ George Pachymeres & Maximos Planoudes studied Diophantus, the father of Algebra. ● Astronomy ○ Commentary to the Handy Tables by Stephanos of Alexandria (7th century) ○ Nikephoros Gregoras used Ptolemaic tables to predict eclipses and Barlaam of Calabria calculated solar eclipses in 1333 and 1337 ● Medicine & Botany ○ First known separation of conjoined twins in Byzantine Empire (10th century) THE RENAISSANCE ● Rebirth of cultural, artistic, political,and economics. ● Rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature and art. ● Era of great thinkers, authors, statesmen, scientists and artists. ● Bridged the gap between the Middle Ages and modern civilization. ● HUMANISM ○ Promoted the idea that man was the center of his own universe and people should embrace human achievements in education. ● RENAISSANCE GENIUSES A.D ABROGAR ○ Leonardo da Vinci - known for his art including two paintings, Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. ○ Michelangelo - renowned renaissance sculptor known for his work Statue of David, The Creation of Adam and Pieta. ○ Rene Descartes - the father of the modern philosophy “I think; therefore I am” ○ Giotto di Bondone - Italian painter known for realistic depictions of human emotions. Known for frescoes in the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua. ○ Nicolas Copernicus - published “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres”. In his book, Copernicus made two conclusions (1) the universe is heliocentric (2) the earth is merely one of several planets revolving around the sun. ■ Reactions to Copernicus : ● Most scholars rejected his theory as it contracted to Ptolemy and the Church. ● Dismissed due to the Church’s support for the earth-based system ● Galileo Galilei - father of modern science. His discoveries caused controversy for contradicting Ptolemy. ● Renaissance exploration ○ Voyagers launched expeditions to travel the entire globe. Famous journeys were taken by Ferdinand Magellan, Christopher Colombus and Marco Polo ● The Reformation ○ Humanism encouraged Europeans to question the Roman Catholic during the Renaissance. ○ Martin Luther led the Protestant Reformation, questioning church practices and causing a split in the Catholic Church. ● End of the Renaissance ○ Wars plagued the Italian peninsula causing disruption and instability. ○ Counter reformation - Catholic church censored artists and writers, stifling creativity. ○ Early 17th century - renaissance movement faded, giving away to the Age of Enlightenment. SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION ● Emergence of modern science during the early modern period ● Shift from Medieval science - occured due to collaboration, new experimental methods, building on existing scientific philosophy & academic publishing institutions. ● Scientific method - changing views on the role of scientists and the value of empirical evidence. ● The change to the medieval idea of science occurred for four reasons : ○ Collaboration between scientists, philosophers, etc. ○ Development of new experimental methods ○ Access to a legacy of European, Greek and Middle Eastern scientific philosophy ○ Institutions like the British Royal Society supported and validated scientific publishing. ● TECHNOLOGY ○ Emergence of published “machine books” or “theatrum machinorum” ● HISTORICAL CONTEXT ○ Purpose of Machine Books ■ Documenting technical solutions ■ Largely theoretical feasibility at the time ● Konrad Kyeser & Bellifortis ○ German engineer and author, Bellifrortis (strong in war), detailed military weapons and war machines. ● Advances in Machinery - enhanced blades and cutting tools. ● Maritime Innovations - tools for navigation and shipbuilding ● Agostino Ramelli - “Various and Indigenous Machines” ● Francis Bacon - argued that truth could not be known at the beginning of a question, but only at the end after a long process of investigation ○ Empiricism - a theory stating that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. Emphasis evidence. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD ● A new approach to science, painstaking method used to confirm findings and to prove or disprove a hypothesis. 1. State the problem 2. Collect information 3. Form a hypothesis 4. Record & analyze the data 5. State a conclusion 6. Repeat steps 1-6 ● New Ideas: A.D ABROGAR 1. Heliocentric Model - sun as the center of the universe 2. Anatomy - shift from animal dissections to human corpses 3. Magnetism & Electricity - study & discovery of magnetic and electric properties of materials. 4. Modernization of Disciplines - development of fields such as dentistry, physiology, chemistry. 5. Invention of Scientific Tools - inventions like the mechanical calculator, steam digester, refracting & reflecting, telescopes, etc. ● Tycho Brahe - set up an astronomical observatory every night for 4 years, accumulating data about the movement of stars and planets. ● Johannes Kepler - calculated the orbits of the planets. Proved that planets revolved around the sun elliptically not in circular, ● Isaac Newton - formulated the laws of motion : 1. A body at rest stays at rest 2. Acceleration is caused by force 3. For every action there is an equal opposite reaction ● Andreas Vsalius - his book was the first accurate and detailed book on human anatomy (On the Structure of the Human Body) ● William Harvey - first to describe completely and in detail the systemic circulation and properties of blood ● Ambroise Pare - developed a new and more effective ointment for preventing infection and introduce technique for closing wounds and stitches ● Herman Boerhaave - the father of physiology ● Pierre Frauchard - father of modern dentistry ● Robert hooke - coined the term “cell” ● Robert Boyle - explained the effect of temperature and pressure on gases. ● Joseph Priestley - discovered oxygen ● Charles Darwin - proposed the “Theory of Evolution” ● Antonie van Leeunwenhoek - father of microbiology ● Alexander von Humboldt - humboldtian science ● Maria Curie - the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize in Physics. Explored much on radioactivity. ● Nikola Tesla - developed the alternating current electrical system . ● Albert Einstein - known for his works on matter and energy. ● 1660 - 1734 : a transformative era in the field of scientific methodology. ● Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica - Newton’s work who primarily influenced the scientific method. ● Emphasized observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation & replicability. ● During this time, Newton focused on analyzing natural occurrences while Descartes used mathematical deduction. ● Scientists began to describe properties such as weight, volume and temperature in numerical terms. ● Theory of Gravitation - one of the pivotal moments of this era was Newton’s discovery that a single law could describe phenomena on Earth and celestial space. ○ The return of Halley’s Comet in 1758 served as a significant event that confirmed Newton’s theory. ● Carl Linnaeus - developing classification schemes for organisms. SCIENCE BECOMES A SHARED ACTIVITY ● 17TH CENTURY - the first scientific societies were established. ● The Royal Society was founded in 1660 from Gresham College in London and formation began in 1645. ● By 1672, the Royal Society provided a platform for scientists like Newton to share their research. ● Edmond Halley - another notable member of the Royal Society and made significant contributions to astronomy. ○ He charted unrecorded stars in Saint Helena in 1676 and predicted the reappearance of comet (known as the Halley’s comet) of 1682 in 1758. ● The collaborative nature of science is also evident in the study of the velocity of light. NEWTON’S PRINCIPIA ● Demonstrated that the laws of universal gravitation govern various phenomena including comet trajectories, planetary orbits, and the motion of the Moon around Earth. PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE ● The development of “mechanical philosophy”, applying mechanical principles to physics, chemistry, & biology although with limited success in chemistry and physiology. ● Denis Diderot, Julien Offray& Baron d’Holbach - proposed that mechanics could A.D ABROGAR explain all phenomena, viewing nature as a machine dismissing a transcendent deity. ● Empiricism and rationalism were dominant philosophical schools. ● Immanuel Kant argues that knowledge came from both experience and reasoning. ● Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz revived the “Great Chain of Being” concept, viewing existence as a continuous chain. ENLIGHTENMENT REVOLUTIONARIES ● Benjamin Franklin (United States) - drafted the Declaration ofIndependence and secured French assistance, which was crucial for American colonies victory over Great Britain. ● Thomas Jefferson (United States) - principal author of the Declaration of Independence and also held strong Patriot views. ● Pierre Simon Laplace (France) - known as the “French Newton” ● Joseph Louis Lagrange (France) - led the committee that devised the metric system. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ● A shift from manual labor to mechanized work. ● Overcrowding led to poor health practices due to congestion and the development of slums. THE ENYCLOPEDIE ● Merged technology and science, making new technologies accessible to the public and combining sciences and humanities. ● The French Encyclopedie - Edited by Diderot & D’Alembert - Compromised 17 volumes of text and 11 volumes of illustrations - Enabled Enlightenment philosophers to disseminate their views and laid the groundwork for all arts and sciences by systematizing knowledge. - Took a strong editorial stance against both church and state. RISE OF THE ENGINEER ● The 18th century heralded the engineering profession with key figures like; 1. Josiah Wedwood , revolutionized pottery with his green glaze invention, 2. Joseph Marie Jacquard who created the first programmable loom and 3. Nicolas LeBlane who devised a method to produce soda ash from common salt in 1970. ● In 1747, France initiated civil engineering with a school for bridges and roads to manage major road and bridge construction and supervise a national highway plan. STEAM ENGINES POWER MACHINES ● JAMES Watt started working on steam engines with scientists like Joseph Black. ● Watt used the “Sun and Planet” gear to generate circular motion, known as parallel motion. RAILROADS, TRAINS & LOCOMOTIVES ● RAILROADS - a system of tracks made of steel rails along which passenger and freight trains run ● TRAINS - a series of connected vehicles that run along a railway track and transport people or freight ● LOCOMOTIVES - a self propelled vehicle, usually electric, diesel or steam powered used for pulling or pushing freight or passenger cars on railroad tracks. FLIGHT ● Joseph & Jacques Etienne Montgolfier (Montgolfier brothers) - the pioneers of human flight ○ Joseph’s initial experiment involved a small paper balloon filled with hot air which led to creation of a larger silk balloon ascending about 21 meters. ● The first public demonstration took place in Annonay, France. ○ The balloon floated for 10 minutes and upon landing, the balloon caught fire due to the flame beneath it. ● The news of this led to Paris leading to the establishment of a public fund for physicist Jacques Charles. ○ Charles, aware that hydrogen was lighter than air, began constructing a hydrogen balloon. ● Jacques Etienne was in Paris planning his own demonstration. ○ Received support from Louis XVI and government funding. ○ Second full size hot air balloon launching attempt failed due to heavy rain. ○ His third balloon made of varnished taffeta successfully transported a sheep, rooster and duck for eight minutes with no harm. ● The Montgolfier brothers and Charles team competed to be the first to lift a person in the air ○ The Montgofiers succeeded with a public launch on the outskirts of Paris ○ 10 days later, Charles and a team member completed the first hydrogen balloon flight. 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