Psychology: Memory
Memory: Collection of information and experiences stored in our brain for later retrieval
Information processing approach: suggests that our memory works similarly to having our own administrative assistant
Ch. 6.1
Richard Atkinson
Richard Shiffrin
-Created a model for memory in 1968
-2 dimensions: permanent/structural part and the more malleable part
-You have some control over how it’ll function under the basic structure
-Structure is in three types: sensory, working, and long term
Everything enters sensory first
Sensory memory will only progress to another memory structure we have to pay attention to it
Short term memory: slightly longer duration than sensory, much lower capacity
-Short term memory is now known as working memory: won’t all be committed to long term memory, but is being used while in working
Long term: repetition, connections, and meaningfulness makes working memories go here
-Unlimited capacity allegedly
-Very few memories go here
Masking: new visual info pushes out the old visual info
-visual memory lasts only half a second
6.2
-Above model is critiqued because memory doesn’t truly work that way
-serial processing: one stage of memory at a time
-Parallel processing: some processes can occur at the same time
Connectionist models of memory: Donald Hebb, interconnected networks in the brain
-Made up of neurons
-When neurons are activated together, the connection becomes stronger
Parallel distributed processing model of memory: ex of a connectionist model
-Memories are constructed through a pattern of activation among neurons
-excitatory: passes the information to the next neuron
-inhibitory: does not stimulate nearby neurons
-pattern of activation among neurons
-You can’t just retrieve a specific memory from a specific place in your brain
-The memory is contained within the connections themselves and distributed throughout various connections in the brain
-Connectionist models help with understanding the neural basis of creation and storage of memories but is less focused on understanding the process and factors associated with gaining and storing knowledge
6.3 Sensory Memory
Sensory memory: brief retention of sensory stimulation
-Extension of perception
Iconic memory: brief persistence of an image after you perceive something
Echoic memory: the ability to briefly and accurately remember sounds
-Goes quickly, not as quick as visual info (3-4 sec)
-We hear information quicker than we process it
Sensory memory:
-Has a large capacity
-Only holds information briefly
-Gaining that information is primarily an unconscious process
-The information stored is relatively unprocessed
6.4
-Attention is necessary for information to move from sensory memory to short term memory
Short term memory: the structural component of memory responsible for storing relatively small amounts of information for a short time
-Duration: 15-30 seconds unless something is done to intentionally keep the memory in the present moment
Maintenance rehearsal: repeating something over and over again to maintain it in your short term memory
-Good for small amounts of information to hold onto for a brief amount of time
Decay: information disappears over time
-memories decay quickly
Interference: new information that grabs your attention and interferes with the information currently in your short term memory
Effortful processing: conscious processing that requires paying explicit attention to remember information
Automatic processing: we pay attention to things without being consciously aware that we’re doing so
-short term memory has a small capacity for storage
Chunking: strategy of combining individual small units of information into larger meaningful units
Semantic coding: processing information based on its meaning
-semantic coding is retained longer than visually or auditory
-short term memory is actively working to manipulate and move information into long term key and then again to retrieve info out of long term memory when needed
Working memory: a structural component of the memory system that allows for the manipulation of information for complex tasks and for the limited and temporary storage of that info
Working memory components:
Phonological loop: holds verbal and auditory information briefly through maintenance rehearsal (most active part of working memory)
Visuospatial sketchpad: holds both visual and spatial info
Central executive: focusing attention where necessary and coordinating activities between all departments of working memory
5-9 memories in short term memory except now we think it’s 4-5
6.5
Encoding: the process used to consolidate information from working memory to long term memory
-most effective memorization strategies involve effortful processing
Elaborative rehearsal: focuses on meaning by truly understanding the meaning of the information and elaborating on the material by making it meaningful to you
-There are levels of processing (deep > shallow)
Method of Loci: make a story to remember
Study strategies:
visualize: create pictures in your mind, tie materials to vivid, wild imagery
Mnemonics: connect information to something else that can serve as a trigger (ex: acronyms)
Teach someone else: can you explain the concept to someone else?
Organize information: develop your own organization system for information, make your own concept maps or illustrations
Test yourself: flash cards, multiple choice, etc.
Interleaving: study different concepts in the same study session
6.6
Long term memory: the structure where information is stored for long periods of time
-largest memory structure (unlimited)
-Brain has many parts that work together on memory
Explicit memories: memories of which we are consciously aware
Episodic memories: a specific sequence of events
Implicit memories: Information is retained in our minds that we aren’t necessarily aware that we have remembered it
Priming: quickly presenting a stimulus that activates unconscious associations that lead to a predictable response
Procedural memory: habits and skills we perform
6.7
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: Consciously trying to retrieve information and your memory is temporarily inaccessible
Retrieval: getting information out of your memory
Free recall: pulling information directly from long term memory without retrieval cues
Retrieval cues: bits of information that can trigger information in long-term memory to become available
Cued recall: using retrieval cues to access info
-easier than free recall
Recognition: the correct answer is provided among a group of answers
Serial position effect: when recalling a list of stuff, most people can remember the items at the beginning and end
-primacy effect: recall beginning
-recency effect: recall ending
-End of the list was said most recently to working memory
-Beginning: more time to be rehearsed
Encoding specificity: information is encoded along with its context and memories are more easily recalled when the retrieval context matches the context in which the memory was encoded
-Context-dependent memory: how the context during encoding can improve recall
-Smell goes straight to the brain for processing (amygdala)
State-dependent learning: a match between someone’s internal state at encoding and retrieval
6.8
Flashbulb memories: memories burned into your mind (extremely emotional). The moment stops, as if a picture was taken (very vivid and accurate)
-The moment YOU heard the news of a public event
-Rapid forgetting within the first year, then levels out
-details of the event self-corrected over time
-People are confident in these memories
6.9
Reconstructive memory: the act of remembering requires the reconstruction of previous events
-Events before/during/after affect the accuracy of a memory
-Memories are influenced by the source of the information, our general knowledge, and/or suggestions supplied by others
Source monitoring: the process of determining the origins, or source of our memories, beliefs, or knowledge
Source monitoring error: when we recall a memory but attribute it to the wrong source
Cryptomnesia: unconscious plagiarism of another’s work
Schema: overall category
Pragmatic interference: effects that real world knowledge and experiences can have on peoples expectations and memory
-When a situation/context is unclear, it’s more likely to occur
Misinformation effect: an event/situation occurring after the memory that modifies the memory
-New memories can be implanted through the power of suggestion
-Eyewitness testimony can be super unreliable
A system variable can be changed to increase the usefulness of eyewitness testimony
(Ex: looking at confidence levels of the witness at the time of suspect identification)
6.10
-forgetting helps us conserve brain energy and focus on remembering more important details
Forgetting curve: we are quick to forget most things we learn, but after a few days our forgetting rate levels off
Encoding error
-ineffective/interrupted encoding of information causes forgetting
-You have to encode for information to move to long term
-Info can go into working memory multiple times but not into long term
Long term memories were initially proposed to decay over time
-controversial
Memories may not go away but get lost among others
-We’re still debating about how forgetting occurs
Retrieval Failure
Proactive interference: previously learned info interferes with remembering new information
Retroactive interference: New information makes you forget older memories
-Sleep helps with your memory
-Non-REM deep sleep it’s important for memory consolidation and may help rescue memories from retroactive interference
-We replay daily events during sleep
Motivated forgetting: increased forgetting of unwanted experiences through active processes
-May not be truly forgotten (debated)
-Freud proposed that depression was a prominent defense mechanism
-Its difficult to test something that’s inaccessible to the unconscious mind
-Can happen at the stage of encoding/retrieval, involves inhibitory controls of the lateral prefrontal cortex
6.11
Retrograde amnesia: the loss of past memories
-amnesia from an injury usually is most intense with recent past events and more remote memories less affected
Anterograde amnesia: affects future memories
-Struggle to create new long term memories
-frontal lobe
-Both linked to brain damage
6.12
Engram: physical memory trace
Karl Lashley thought memories were in a specific spot in the brain -he found out that’s wrong
Memories are widely distributed throughout the entire cortex
Today, scientists think that there is no specific area for all memories, certain types of memories are grouped together in specific areas of the brain
Explicit memories
Short term memory/working memory: localized to the frontal lobe and hippocampus
-Those spots are also important for recognition/recall of long term memories
-Specifically the prefrontal cortex
Hippocampus responsible for processing our explicit memories
-Then sent to other regions for storage
New studies suggest that a copy is made of every memory created
-One in hippocampus, one in cortex
-Hippocampus retrieved it first few days, then the cortex would retrieve it if needed in the time after that
Short term memory weakens in the hippocampus, long term memories are consolidated in the cortex
Implicit memories
Hippocampus and cerebellum and basal ganglia are all important here
-cerebellum and basal ganglia are necessary for forming implicit memories
-Both linked to different skills, but still both needed
Amygdala: processing and experiencing emotion (strong emotions especially)
-Connections between neurons are important to the memory process
6.13
Synapses: areas between neurons
When we learn something new, neurons use neurotransmitters to talk to each other
-When we review that info those same connections are strengthened and it’s easier for the neurotransmitters to travel the synapses and impact the next neuron
-Neurons activated at the same time develop a connection, if repeated, become a memory
Donald Hebb: connection between strong neural connections and creation/maintenance of memories
Long term potentiation: strengthening of neural connections (LTP)
Eric Kandel: reductionist approach
Before a memory is created, many neurons have some existing relationship
-presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitter into the synapse, communicating with the post-synaptic neuron
Short term memory: there’s a functional strengthening between the two neurons when a memory is available to you
-The process of neurotransmission becomes more efficient/effective
Long term memory: there’s a structural change in neurons
-When information is repeated, that target neuron grows new synaptic connections, developing new, additional receptors
Neuroplasticity: our brain changes as a result of experience
Class Notes
-Learning styles are bullshit
-Amount of time spent studying isn’t necessarily affecting how much you learn
Psychology: Memory
Memory: Collection of information and experiences stored in our brain for later retrieval
Information processing approach: suggests that our memory works similarly to having our own administrative assistant
Ch. 6.1
Richard Atkinson
Richard Shiffrin
-Created a model for memory in 1968
-2 dimensions: permanent/structural part and the more malleable part
-You have some control over how it’ll function under the basic structure
-Structure is in three types: sensory, working, and long term
Everything enters sensory first
Sensory memory will only progress to another memory structure we have to pay attention to it
Short term memory: slightly longer duration than sensory, much lower capacity
-Short term memory is now known as working memory: won’t all be committed to long term memory, but is being used while in working
Long term: repetition, connections, and meaningfulness makes working memories go here
-Unlimited capacity allegedly
-Very few memories go here
Masking: new visual info pushes out the old visual info
-visual memory lasts only half a second
6.2
-Above model is critiqued because memory doesn’t truly work that way
-serial processing: one stage of memory at a time
-Parallel processing: some processes can occur at the same time
Connectionist models of memory: Donald Hebb, interconnected networks in the brain
-Made up of neurons
-When neurons are activated together, the connection becomes stronger
Parallel distributed processing model of memory: ex of a connectionist model
-Memories are constructed through a pattern of activation among neurons
-excitatory: passes the information to the next neuron
-inhibitory: does not stimulate nearby neurons
-pattern of activation among neurons
-You can’t just retrieve a specific memory from a specific place in your brain
-The memory is contained within the connections themselves and distributed throughout various connections in the brain
-Connectionist models help with understanding the neural basis of creation and storage of memories but is less focused on understanding the process and factors associated with gaining and storing knowledge
6.3 Sensory Memory
Sensory memory: brief retention of sensory stimulation
-Extension of perception
Iconic memory: brief persistence of an image after you perceive something
Echoic memory: the ability to briefly and accurately remember sounds
-Goes quickly, not as quick as visual info (3-4 sec)
-We hear information quicker than we process it
Sensory memory:
-Has a large capacity
-Only holds information briefly
-Gaining that information is primarily an unconscious process
-The information stored is relatively unprocessed
6.4
-Attention is necessary for information to move from sensory memory to short term memory
Short term memory: the structural component of memory responsible for storing relatively small amounts of information for a short time
-Duration: 15-30 seconds unless something is done to intentionally keep the memory in the present moment
Maintenance rehearsal: repeating something over and over again to maintain it in your short term memory
-Good for small amounts of information to hold onto for a brief amount of time
Decay: information disappears over time
-memories decay quickly
Interference: new information that grabs your attention and interferes with the information currently in your short term memory
Effortful processing: conscious processing that requires paying explicit attention to remember information
Automatic processing: we pay attention to things without being consciously aware that we’re doing so
-short term memory has a small capacity for storage
Chunking: strategy of combining individual small units of information into larger meaningful units
Semantic coding: processing information based on its meaning
-semantic coding is retained longer than visually or auditory
-short term memory is actively working to manipulate and move information into long term key and then again to retrieve info out of long term memory when needed
Working memory: a structural component of the memory system that allows for the manipulation of information for complex tasks and for the limited and temporary storage of that info
Working memory components:
Phonological loop: holds verbal and auditory information briefly through maintenance rehearsal (most active part of working memory)
Visuospatial sketchpad: holds both visual and spatial info
Central executive: focusing attention where necessary and coordinating activities between all departments of working memory
5-9 memories in short term memory except now we think it’s 4-5
6.5
Encoding: the process used to consolidate information from working memory to long term memory
-most effective memorization strategies involve effortful processing
Elaborative rehearsal: focuses on meaning by truly understanding the meaning of the information and elaborating on the material by making it meaningful to you
-There are levels of processing (deep > shallow)
Method of Loci: make a story to remember
Study strategies:
visualize: create pictures in your mind, tie materials to vivid, wild imagery
Mnemonics: connect information to something else that can serve as a trigger (ex: acronyms)
Teach someone else: can you explain the concept to someone else?
Organize information: develop your own organization system for information, make your own concept maps or illustrations
Test yourself: flash cards, multiple choice, etc.
Interleaving: study different concepts in the same study session
6.6
Long term memory: the structure where information is stored for long periods of time
-largest memory structure (unlimited)
-Brain has many parts that work together on memory
Explicit memories: memories of which we are consciously aware
Episodic memories: a specific sequence of events
Implicit memories: Information is retained in our minds that we aren’t necessarily aware that we have remembered it
Priming: quickly presenting a stimulus that activates unconscious associations that lead to a predictable response
Procedural memory: habits and skills we perform
6.7
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: Consciously trying to retrieve information and your memory is temporarily inaccessible
Retrieval: getting information out of your memory
Free recall: pulling information directly from long term memory without retrieval cues
Retrieval cues: bits of information that can trigger information in long-term memory to become available
Cued recall: using retrieval cues to access info
-easier than free recall
Recognition: the correct answer is provided among a group of answers
Serial position effect: when recalling a list of stuff, most people can remember the items at the beginning and end
-primacy effect: recall beginning
-recency effect: recall ending
-End of the list was said most recently to working memory
-Beginning: more time to be rehearsed
Encoding specificity: information is encoded along with its context and memories are more easily recalled when the retrieval context matches the context in which the memory was encoded
-Context-dependent memory: how the context during encoding can improve recall
-Smell goes straight to the brain for processing (amygdala)
State-dependent learning: a match between someone’s internal state at encoding and retrieval
6.8
Flashbulb memories: memories burned into your mind (extremely emotional). The moment stops, as if a picture was taken (very vivid and accurate)
-The moment YOU heard the news of a public event
-Rapid forgetting within the first year, then levels out
-details of the event self-corrected over time
-People are confident in these memories
6.9
Reconstructive memory: the act of remembering requires the reconstruction of previous events
-Events before/during/after affect the accuracy of a memory
-Memories are influenced by the source of the information, our general knowledge, and/or suggestions supplied by others
Source monitoring: the process of determining the origins, or source of our memories, beliefs, or knowledge
Source monitoring error: when we recall a memory but attribute it to the wrong source
Cryptomnesia: unconscious plagiarism of another’s work
Schema: overall category
Pragmatic interference: effects that real world knowledge and experiences can have on peoples expectations and memory
-When a situation/context is unclear, it’s more likely to occur
Misinformation effect: an event/situation occurring after the memory that modifies the memory
-New memories can be implanted through the power of suggestion
-Eyewitness testimony can be super unreliable
A system variable can be changed to increase the usefulness of eyewitness testimony
(Ex: looking at confidence levels of the witness at the time of suspect identification)
6.10
-forgetting helps us conserve brain energy and focus on remembering more important details
Forgetting curve: we are quick to forget most things we learn, but after a few days our forgetting rate levels off
Encoding error
-ineffective/interrupted encoding of information causes forgetting
-You have to encode for information to move to long term
-Info can go into working memory multiple times but not into long term
Long term memories were initially proposed to decay over time
-controversial
Memories may not go away but get lost among others
-We’re still debating about how forgetting occurs
Retrieval Failure
Proactive interference: previously learned info interferes with remembering new information
Retroactive interference: New information makes you forget older memories
-Sleep helps with your memory
-Non-REM deep sleep it’s important for memory consolidation and may help rescue memories from retroactive interference
-We replay daily events during sleep
Motivated forgetting: increased forgetting of unwanted experiences through active processes
-May not be truly forgotten (debated)
-Freud proposed that depression was a prominent defense mechanism
-Its difficult to test something that’s inaccessible to the unconscious mind
-Can happen at the stage of encoding/retrieval, involves inhibitory controls of the lateral prefrontal cortex
6.11
Retrograde amnesia: the loss of past memories
-amnesia from an injury usually is most intense with recent past events and more remote memories less affected
Anterograde amnesia: affects future memories
-Struggle to create new long term memories
-frontal lobe
-Both linked to brain damage
6.12
Engram: physical memory trace
Karl Lashley thought memories were in a specific spot in the brain -he found out that’s wrong
Memories are widely distributed throughout the entire cortex
Today, scientists think that there is no specific area for all memories, certain types of memories are grouped together in specific areas of the brain
Explicit memories
Short term memory/working memory: localized to the frontal lobe and hippocampus
-Those spots are also important for recognition/recall of long term memories
-Specifically the prefrontal cortex
Hippocampus responsible for processing our explicit memories
-Then sent to other regions for storage
New studies suggest that a copy is made of every memory created
-One in hippocampus, one in cortex
-Hippocampus retrieved it first few days, then the cortex would retrieve it if needed in the time after that
Short term memory weakens in the hippocampus, long term memories are consolidated in the cortex
Implicit memories
Hippocampus and cerebellum and basal ganglia are all important here
-cerebellum and basal ganglia are necessary for forming implicit memories
-Both linked to different skills, but still both needed
Amygdala: processing and experiencing emotion (strong emotions especially)
-Connections between neurons are important to the memory process
6.13
Synapses: areas between neurons
When we learn something new, neurons use neurotransmitters to talk to each other
-When we review that info those same connections are strengthened and it’s easier for the neurotransmitters to travel the synapses and impact the next neuron
-Neurons activated at the same time develop a connection, if repeated, become a memory
Donald Hebb: connection between strong neural connections and creation/maintenance of memories
Long term potentiation: strengthening of neural connections (LTP)
Eric Kandel: reductionist approach
Before a memory is created, many neurons have some existing relationship
-presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitter into the synapse, communicating with the post-synaptic neuron
Short term memory: there’s a functional strengthening between the two neurons when a memory is available to you
-The process of neurotransmission becomes more efficient/effective
Long term memory: there’s a structural change in neurons
-When information is repeated, that target neuron grows new synaptic connections, developing new, additional receptors
Neuroplasticity: our brain changes as a result of experience
Class Notes
-Learning styles are bullshit
-Amount of time spent studying isn’t necessarily affecting how much you learn
