African American History Final

Richard Wright, “Learning Racial Etiquette” (in “The Color Line in the Era of Segregation”)

In Richard Wright's essay "Learning Racial Etiquette," found in "The Color Line in the Era of Segregation," he reflects on his experiences growing up in the segregated South. Wright describes the unwritten rules and behaviors that African Americans were expected to follow to navigate the oppressive racial hierarchy of the time.

Key Points:

Racial Etiquette: Wright details how African Americans had to learn and adhere to specific behaviors to avoid violent repercussions from white society. This included avoiding eye contact, stepping off sidewalks to let white people pass, and using deferential language.

Psychological Impact: The constant need to conform to these demeaning rules took a significant psychological toll on African Americans, fostering feelings of fear, anger, and humiliation.

Resistance and Awareness: Despite the oppressive environment, Wright highlights moments of resistance and the growing awareness among African Americans of the need to challenge these unjust norms.

Wright's essay provides a poignant insight into the daily realities of living under segregation and the subtle yet pervasive ways in which racial oppression was enforced.

Ida B. Wells-Barnett, “Self Help” (in “Racial Alternatives in the Progressive Era”)

In Ida B. Wells-Barnett's essay "Self Help," found in "Racial Alternatives in the Progressive Era," she emphasizes the importance of African Americans taking proactive steps to improve their own conditions despite the pervasive racism and discrimination of the time.

Key Points:

Economic Independence: Wells-Barnett advocates for African Americans to pursue economic self-sufficiency through entrepreneurship, land ownership, and the establishment of businesses. She believes that financial independence is crucial for gaining respect and stability.

Education: She stresses the importance of education as a means of empowerment. By acquiring knowledge and skills, African Americans can better advocate for their rights and improve their social and economic status.

Community Solidarity: Wells-Barnett highlights the need for unity and mutual support within the African American community. She encourages collective efforts to build institutions and networks that can provide resources and support for self-improvement.

Wells-Barnett's essay is a call to action for African Americans to rely on their own strengths and resources to overcome the challenges posed by a racially discriminatory society.

Zora Neale Hurston, “How It Feels to be Colored Me”

In Zora Neale Hurston's essay "How It Feels to be Colored Me," she explores her identity as an African American woman with a sense of pride and individuality. Written in 1928, the essay reflects Hurston's unique perspective on race and self-perception.

Key Points:

Personal Identity: Hurston describes her childhood in Eatonville, Florida, where she initially did not feel different from others until she moved to Jacksonville and became aware of her racial identity.

Pride and Resilience: She expresses pride in her heritage and rejects the notion of being a victim of racial prejudice. Hurston views herself as a strong and resilient individual, unburdened by the weight of racial discrimination.

Cultural Richness: Hurston celebrates the richness of African American culture and its contributions to American society. She uses vivid metaphors to convey her sense of self-worth and cultural pride.

Optimism: The essay conveys an optimistic outlook, emphasizing that her identity is shaped by her experiences and inner strength rather than societal perceptions of race.

Hurston's essay is a powerful affirmation of self-identity and cultural pride, challenging the negative stereotypes and limitations imposed by society.

“The First Day of School in Little Rock”

"The First Day of School in Little Rock" refers to the historic event on September 4, 1957, when nine African American students, known as the Little Rock Nine, attempted to integrate Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. This event was a pivotal moment in the Civil Rights Movement.

Key Points:

Historical Context: Following the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional, efforts to integrate schools faced significant resistance in the South.

The Little Rock Nine: The nine students—Melba Pattillo, Ernest Green, Elizabeth Eckford, Minnijean Brown, Gloria Ray, Terrence Roberts, Thelma Mothershed, Jefferson Thomas, and Carlotta Walls—were selected to integrate Central High School.

Resistance and Violence: On their first day, the students were met with a hostile crowd and were initially prevented from entering the school by the Arkansas National Guard, under orders from Governor Orval Faubus.

Federal Intervention: President Dwight D. Eisenhower intervened by sending federal troops to escort and protect the students, ensuring their safe entry into the school.

Impact: The courage of the Little Rock Nine and the federal government's intervention highlighted the intense struggle for civil rights and the need for federal enforcement of desegregation laws.

This event underscored the challenges of desegregation and the bravery of those who fought for equal education rights.

Martin Luther King, “A Letter from the Birmingham Jail”

Martin Luther King Jr.'s "Letter from Birmingham Jail," written in April 1963, is a powerful defense of the strategy of nonviolent resistance to racism. King wrote the letter in response to a public statement by eight white clergymen criticizing his involvement in civil rights protests in Birmingham, Alabama.

Key Points:

Justification for Direct Action: King explains that nonviolent direct action is necessary to create tension and crisis, forcing communities to confront and negotiate on racial issues. He argues that waiting for a "more convenient season" only prolongs injustice1.

Critique of White Moderates: King expresses disappointment with white moderates, who he feels are more devoted to order than to justice. He criticizes their preference for a negative peace, which is the absence of tension, over a positive peace, which is the presence of justice2.

Moral Responsibility: King emphasizes the moral responsibility to break unjust laws and take direct action rather than waiting for justice to come through the courts. He distinguishes between just and unjust laws, arguing that individuals have a duty to disobey unjust laws3.

Disappointment with the Church: King also addresses his disappointment with the white church and its leadership, who he feels have been more cautious than courageous in the fight for civil rights.

Hope and Optimism: Despite the challenges, King remains hopeful, believing that the struggle for freedom and equality will ultimately succeed.

King's letter is a profound and eloquent articulation of the principles of nonviolent resistance and a call to action against racial injustice.

The Black Panther Party Platform

The Black Panther Party Platform, also known as the Ten-Point Program, was created by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale in 1966. It outlined the key demands and beliefs of the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense, focusing on issues of racial justice and economic empowerment.

Key Points:

Freedom and Self-Determination: The demand for the power to determine the destiny of the Black community.

Full Employment: The call for full employment for African Americans, with the belief that the federal government should ensure jobs or a guaranteed income.

End to Economic Exploitation: The demand for an end to the robbery of the Black community by capitalists, including reparations for slavery.

Decent Housing: The call for decent housing fit for human beings, with the belief that if landlords do not provide it, the community should take control.

Education: The demand for education that teaches true history and the role of Black people in society.

Exemption from Military Service: The call for Black men to be exempt from military service, arguing that they should not defend a racist government.

End to Police Brutality: The demand for an immediate end to police brutality and the murder of Black people.

Freedom for Black Prisoners: The call for the release of all Black people held in federal, state, county, and city prisons and jails.

Fair Trials: The demand for Black people to be tried by a jury of their peers or people from their Black communities.

Land, Bread, Housing, Education, Clothing, Justice, and Peace: The overarching demand for basic human rights and necessities for the Black community123.

The Ten-Point Program served as a foundational document for the Black Panther Party, guiding their activism and community programs aimed at addressing systemic racism and inequality.

Sybrina Fulton, “Letter to Michael Brown’s Family” (in #BlackLivesMatter documents)

In Sybrina Fulton's "Letter to Michael Brown’s Family," she offers heartfelt condolences and solidarity to the family of Michael Brown, an unarmed Black teenager killed by police in Ferguson, Missouri. Fulton, whose own son Trayvon Martin was similarly killed, shares her deep empathy and understanding of their grief.

Key Points:

Shared Pain: Fulton acknowledges the profound and unique pain of losing a child to senseless violence, expressing that their lives are forever changed.

Support and Solidarity: She extends her support to the Brown family, emphasizing that they are not alone and that many others share their sorrow and stand with them.

Call for Justice: Fulton encourages the Brown family to seek justice for Michael and to continue the fight against systemic racism and violence.

Hope and Resilience: Despite the tragedy, Fulton offers a message of hope, urging the community to galvanize and ensure that the lives lost are not in vain.

Fulton's letter is a poignant expression of empathy, support, and a call to action for justice and change

Part II.  Essay (60 points). Your essay should contain a thesis statement (one sentence statement of your argument) and the body of your essay should develop the thesis with several major points and specific evidence drawn from both primary sources (historical documents) and secondary sources (lectures, films).  The bulk of your evidence should come from primary sources.  One of the following questions will appear on the final exam.

From 1877 to the present, how has the battle for freedom centered on the desire of African Americans to control and care for their own bodies and emotions? How have women’s experiences differed from or been like men’s on this issue? Consider health, safety, shelter, economic security, marriage, and artistic expression as you answer this question. Make sure to discuss three distinct periods in the post-Civil War era such as the Nadir, the early Civil Rights Movement, the Movement of the 1960’s, or the post-Civil Rights era.

The battle for freedom for African Americans from 1877 to the present has been deeply intertwined with the desire to control and care for their own bodies and emotions. This struggle has evolved through various periods, each marked by significant challenges and achievements. Let's explore three distinct periods: the Nadir (late 19th to early 20th century), the early Civil Rights Movement (1940s-1950s), and the Movement of the 1960s.

The Nadir (1877-early 20th century)

During the Nadir, African Americans faced severe oppression and violence, particularly in the South. The end of Reconstruction in 1877 marked the beginning of this period, characterized by the rise of Jim Crow laws and widespread racial violence. African Americans sought to control their bodies and emotions through various means:

Health and Safety: Access to healthcare was limited, and African Americans often relied on community-based care and traditional medicine. The establishment of Black hospitals and medical schools, such as Meharry Medical College, was crucial in providing healthcare and training Black physicians1.

Shelter and Economic Security: Sharecropping and tenant farming were common, trapping many African Americans in cycles of debt and poverty. Despite these challenges, some managed to acquire land and build communities, such as the Black Wall Street in Tulsa, Oklahoma2.

Artistic Expression: The Harlem Renaissance in the early 20th century was a cultural movement where African American artists, writers, and musicians expressed their experiences and aspirations, challenging stereotypes and asserting their identity3.

Early Civil Rights Movement (1940s-1950s)

The early Civil Rights Movement saw African Americans organizing to challenge segregation and discrimination. This period was marked by significant legal victories and grassroots activism:

Health and Safety: The fight for desegregation extended to healthcare, with activists pushing for equal access to medical facilities. The establishment of the National Medical Association in 1895 aimed to address the exclusion of Black physicians from the American Medical Association4.

Shelter and Economic Security: The Great Migration saw millions of African Americans moving to northern cities in search of better opportunities. However, they often faced housing discrimination and economic exploitation. Organizations like the NAACP fought for fair housing and employment rights5.

Artistic Expression: The rise of jazz and blues music provided a platform for African Americans to express their struggles and resilience. Artists like Duke Ellington and Billie Holiday used their music to highlight social issues and inspire change6.

The Movement of the 1960s

The 1960s were a transformative period for African Americans, marked by the Civil Rights Movement's peak and significant legislative achievements:

Health and Safety: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were landmark legislations that aimed to dismantle institutional racism. Activists like Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X emphasized the importance of self-respect and dignity in the fight for equality.

Shelter and Economic Security: The Fair Housing Act of 1968 aimed to eliminate housing discrimination, although challenges persisted. Economic empowerment initiatives, such as the Poor People's Campaign, sought to address systemic poverty and inequality.

Artistic Expression: The Black Arts Movement emerged, with artists like Amiri Baraka and Maya Angelou using their work to promote Black pride and cultural identity. This period saw a flourishing of literature, visual arts, and theater that celebrated African American heritage.

Women's Experiences

African American women faced unique challenges and played crucial roles in the struggle for freedom:

Health and Safety: Black women often took on the role of caregivers and community health advocates. Figures like Mary McLeod Bethune and Fannie Lou Hamer were instrumental in advocating for healthcare and social services.

Shelter and Economic Security: Women were often at the forefront of economic struggles, balancing work and family responsibilities. They played key roles in labor movements and community organizing, such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott led by Rosa Parks.

Artistic Expression: Black women artists and writers, including Zora Neale Hurston and Lorraine Hansberry, used their work to highlight the intersection of race and gender, advocating for both racial and gender equality.

In summary, the battle for freedom for African Americans has been a continuous struggle for control over their bodies and emotions, evolving through different historical periods. Women's experiences, while sharing common goals with men, also reflected unique challenges and contributions, particularly in health, economic security, and artistic expression.

Describe the goals that different groups of African Americans have worked to achieve since 1877. What obstacles have they encountered along the way and how have they attempted to overcome them? Consider education, financial security, equal opportunity, respect, self-preservation, and democratic rights as you answer this question. Make sure to discuss three distinct periods in the post-Civil War era such as the Nadir, the early Civil Rights Movement, the Movement of the 1960’s, or the post-Civil Rights era.

The goals of African Americans since 1877 have centered on achieving education, financial security, equal opportunity, respect, self-preservation, and democratic rights. Let's explore these goals and the obstacles encountered across three distinct periods: the Nadir (late 19th to early 20th century), the early Civil Rights Movement (1940s-1950s), and the Movement of the 1960s.

The Nadir (1877-early 20th century)

Goals:

Education: Establishing schools and colleges for African Americans to provide quality education and uplift the community.

Financial Security: Gaining economic independence through land ownership and business ventures.

Democratic Rights: Securing the right to vote and participate in the political process.

Obstacles:

Segregation and Discrimination: Jim Crow laws enforced racial segregation, limiting access to quality education and economic opportunities1.

Violence and Intimidation: Groups like the Ku Klux Klan used violence to suppress African American political participation and economic progress2.

Overcoming Obstacles:

Community Building: Establishing institutions like the Tuskegee Institute and Black Wall Street in Tulsa, Oklahoma, to promote education and economic self-sufficiency3.

Legal Challenges: Fighting discriminatory laws through the court system, although progress was slow and often met with resistance4.

Early Civil Rights Movement (1940s-1950s)

Goals:

Equal Opportunity: Ending segregation and ensuring equal access to public facilities, education, and employment.

Respect and Self-Preservation: Promoting dignity and self-respect through civil rights activism.

Obstacles:

Institutional Racism: Segregation in schools, workplaces, and public spaces persisted despite legal challenges5.

Economic Inequality: African Americans faced significant barriers to economic advancement, including discriminatory hiring practices and wage disparities.

Overcoming Obstacles:

Grassroots Activism: Organizing boycotts, sit-ins, and marches to protest segregation and discrimination, such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

Legal Victories: Landmark Supreme Court cases like Brown v. Board of Education (1954) helped dismantle legal segregation in public schools.

The Movement of the 1960s

Goals:

Democratic Rights: Ensuring voting rights and political representation.

Economic Security: Addressing poverty and economic disparities through policy changes and community programs.

Obstacles:

Systemic Inequality: Persistent economic and social inequalities despite legal advancements.

Political Resistance: Opposition from political leaders and institutions resistant to change.

Overcoming Obstacles:

Legislative Achievements: Passing significant legislation like the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to protect civil rights and voting rights.

Economic Initiatives: Programs like the War on Poverty aimed to reduce economic disparities and improve living conditions for African Americans.

Summary

Throughout these periods, African Americans have consistently worked towards education, financial security, equal opportunity, respect, self-preservation, and democratic rights. Despite facing significant obstacles, they have employed various strategies, including community building, legal challenges, grassroots activism, and legislative advocacy, to overcome these challenges and advance their goals.