House of Burgess: The House of Burgesses was the first representative assembly in colonial America, established in Virginia in 1619. It marked the beginning of representative government in English North America, with elected representatives making laws and policies for the colony.

Indentured servants: Individuals who voluntarily agreed to work for a specified period (typically four to seven years) in exchange for passage to the New World, food, clothing, and shelter. After completing their term of service, they were often granted land or other benefits.

Atlantic slave trade: The transportation of African slaves to the Americas to work on plantations and in other industries. It was a triangular trade route between Europe, Africa, and the Americas, with enslaved Africans being traded for goods such as rum, textiles, and firearms.

Powhatan Wars: A series of conflicts between English settlers of the Virginia Colony and various Indigenous groups, particularly the Powhatan Confederacy, in the early 17th century. The wars were characterized by violence, raids, and attempts by both sides to assert control over territory.

New England Confederation: A loose alliance formed in 1643 between four New England colonies—Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven—for mutual defense and cooperation against Native American threats, Dutch encroachment, and potential conflicts with other colonies.

Puritans vs. Anglicans: Religious groups within the English Protestant tradition. Puritans sought to purify the Church of England of perceived Roman Catholic influences and rituals, while Anglicans supported the established hierarchy and rituals of the Church of England.

Headright system: A land distribution system used in colonial Virginia and Maryland, whereby individuals who paid for their passage to the colonies received a certain amount of land as a reward. This encouraged the recruitment of settlers and the expansion of colonial agriculture.

Bacon’s Rebellion: An armed uprising in colonial Virginia in 1676 led by Nathaniel Bacon, a discontented settler, against Governor William Berkeley's administration. The rebellion was fueled by grievances over Native American raids, economic disparities, and lack of political representation.

Protestant Reformation: A religious movement in 16th-century Europe that aimed to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the establishment of Protestant churches. It led to religious and political upheaval, influencing colonization efforts in the Americas.

Mayflower Compact: A governing agreement signed by the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower in 1620 before disembarking in Plymouth, Massachusetts. It established a framework for self-government based on the consent of the governed and is considered an early form of democratic governance in America.

Act of Toleration: Legislation passed in Maryland in 1649 that granted religious freedom to Christian denominations, particularly Catholics and Protestants, in the colony. It was one of the earliest laws in the English colonies to promote religious tolerance.

Barbados Slave Code: A set of laws enacted in the Caribbean island of Barbados in the 17th century to regulate the institution of slavery and control enslaved Africans. It served as a model for later slave codes in other English colonies.

Zenger trial: A landmark trial in colonial New York in 1735 in which printer John Peter Zenger was charged with seditious libel for criticizing the colonial governor in his newspaper. The trial established the principle of freedom of the press in America.

Quakers Culture: The Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers, emphasized spiritual equality, pacifism, and simplicity. Quaker culture influenced the development of democratic principles, religious tolerance, and social reform movements in colonial America.

Tobacco/Cash Crops: Crops grown primarily for sale and export rather than for local consumption. Tobacco became the main cash crop in colonial Virginia and Maryland, while other colonies grew crops such as rice, sugar, and indigo for export.

"City on a Hill": A phrase used by John Winthrop, governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, to describe the Puritan colony's mission to serve as a model of Christian virtue and social harmony for the world to emulate.

English Civil War/Glorious Revolution: The English Civil War (1642-1651) was a series of armed conflicts between Parliamentarians (Roundheads) and Royalists (Cavaliers) over issues of governance, religion, and the power of the monarchy. The Glorious Revolution (1688) was a bloodless revolution that resulted in the overthrow of King James II and the establishment of constitutional monarchy in England.

Ann Hutchinson: A Puritan religious leader in colonial Massachusetts who challenged the authority of the established clergy and promoted the idea of individual spiritual interpretation. She was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony and later killed in an attack by Native Americans in New Netherland (present-day New York).

Natural rights: The concept of inherent rights that are not dependent on laws or customs, but are believed to be universal and fundamental to human beings. This idea influenced colonial political thought and the development of concepts such as liberty and equality.

Great Awakening: A religious revival movement that swept through the American colonies in the 18th century, emphasizing personal salvation, emotional preaching, and individual religious experience. It had significant social, cultural, and political effects, contributing to the growth of evangelicalism and challenging established religious institutions.

Mercantilism: An economic theory and policy practiced by European powers in the 17th and 18th centuries, which emphasized the accumulation of wealth through colonial expansion, trade regulation, and the establishment of favorable balances of trade.

Navigation Laws: A series of British laws enacted in the 17th century to regulate colonial trade and commerce. The laws aimed to ensure that colonial trade benefited the British economy and restricted colonial manufacturing and trade with other nations.

Salutary Neglect: A British policy of loosely enforcing colonial regulations in the American colonies in the early to mid-18th century. It allowed colonists a degree of autonomy in governance and trade, contributing to the growth of self-government and economic prosperity in the colonies.