Quiz 1 Terms/ Notes

Week 1: Intro to and History of Archeology

The “archaeological record” : body of physical evidence about the past

Subfields of Anthropology

Linguistics Cultural Biological Archaeology Medical (maybe)

Culture: learned beliefs, knowledge, practices and behavior from a group, constantly evolves over time

Cultural relativism - ability to understand a culture on its own terms not to make judgements using standards of one’s own standards

Ex: Religious beliefs and arranged marriages

Four goals of archaeology

1. Reconstructing histories of particular past cultures

2. Interpreting symbolic and cognitive aspects of past cultures

3. explaining changes over time in cultures

4. preserving the archaeological record

Theory of Degeneration - theory of biological and cultural decline , associated with Darwinism

Young Earth - proposition of earth being created at approximately 4000 BCE (proposed by James Usher in 1500s)

Three Age System

Stone —> Bronze —> Iron

Myth of the Moundbuilders

• fitting American Indians into European antiquarian framework

• used as justification for removal of American Natives by European settlers

Archaeological Methods and Explanation (Wk 2)

Dynamic human behavior, static archaeological record

Dynamic human behavior - effects of human behavior such as interactions, groups and social movements (culture)

Static archaeological record -

Formation processes

the processes that transform physical objects from systemic to archaeological context and relationships between archaeological context and behavior

Middle Range Theory - theory linking human behavior and natural processes to physical remains in archaeological record

Ethnoarchaeology - asking people what they eat and what taking into account what they said

Experimental archaeology -  experimenting stone tools or other relics to see if they have the same results that you though was their use

Systemic context

function or response of a physical object within a living dynamic system of behavior

Archaeological context

physical remains that have exited systemic context and become part of geological record

Cultural transformation processes

“convert” physical objects from systemic to archeological context

Natural transformation processes

“distort“ characteristics of physical objects in archaeological context

Primary Context

locations of and associations of physical remains that are not altered

Secondary context

locations of and associations of physical remains that are altered from cultural or natural process

Survey methods
Pedestrian survey - walk transects and looking for artifacts, features, and any land modification (cheaper than Remote)

Remote Sensing methods- aerial photography, satellite images, geophysical imaging

Excavation

excavating in controlled and pre determined units, can be carried out as vertical or horizontal excavation, usually both

Baulks

walls that are used along with grids

Relative dating techniques

• qualitative, relational

  • older, younger, same age

  • serigraphy and seriation

Absolute dating techniques

• assign a unit of measurement to age

  • date in years, chromatic

Stratigraphy

Law of association/stratification - objects in the same stratum or layer are closer in time than those in different strata

Law of superposition - objects in deeper layers were deposited earlier than objects in upper layers

Seriation

relative dating of objects or collections of objects based on changes in artifact style

Dendrochronology

using the pattern of narrow and wide rings in trees to measure the age or chronology

Radiocarbon dating

using 14C to measure age of dead organism and has a half life (5740)

Human Evolution (Wk 3)

Hominin

• Great Apes like gorillas and chimpanzees, humans and human ancestors

  (quadruple and bipedal)

Hominid

• human and human ancestors (bipedal)

Foramen magnum

opening in skull that connects it to the spine

Gracile Australopithecus: generally believed to lead to first Homo: Homo Habilis

Robust Australopithecines: also called “Parallel man“ they continue on for a little while until 1.4 Mya

*keep in mind that both used to be Australopithecus afarensis until they split

Oldowan Tool kit

First stone tools made in 3mya, simple and expedient technology (homo habilis)

Acheulean tool kit

Homo Erectus developed more refined lithic tools than those of homo habilis, more flaking

First regular and controlled use of fire

Some evidence to show but appears that Homo erectus used it more regularly

Homo habilis

more diverse diet due to smaller teeth, less sexual dimorphism, smaller brain size than homo erectus, much older and are from East Africa

Homo erectus

has a more modern post cranial skeleton in morphology and in size, associated with the 1st Acheulean stone tool tech, much recent and from Africa, Asia, and Europe

Characteristics of humans (bipedalism, stone tools, big brains, language/symbolism)

Peopling of the World (Wk 4)

Migrations out of Africa

• 1.8 Mya, Homo erectus migrated into SW Asia

Timing and location of emergence of Homo sapiens sapiens

• Emerge in Africa in 300 - 100 kya

• Appear 120 - 60 kya

Neanderthals (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis)

• 200,000 - 30,000 ya, Europe and West Asia

• Brain exceeds that of Habilis and Erectus

• More robust skeleton and adapted to cold

Neanderthal behavior

• hunted big game

• exhibited concern for others

Mousterian tool technology

• Middle Stone Age (300- 32 kya)

• Greater standardization and use of hafted tools (Atlatl and Spear)

Major Developments of the Upper, Middle, and Lower Paleolithic

Upper Paleolithic - 50 - 12 Kya

• Blade technology

• Domestication of dogs

• art and decoration

Middle Paleolithic - 300 - 50 kya

• Neanderthals, homo sapiens, and other homo species

• Mousterian tool tech

• burial of dead

Lower Paleolithic - 3.3 mya - 300 kya

• Oldowan and Acheulean tools

• Homo habilis, homo erectus, homo heidelbergenis

• use of fire

• first spread out of Africa

Development of language

might of occurred as early as homo habilis such as symbolic communications like gestures, body language, and facial expressions

Sunda and Sahul

Suanda - SE Asia

Sahul - Australia and Melanesia

Settling of Australia/Sahul

Early settlements near the coast

Last Glacial Maximum and its effect on sea level

21000 years ago and water level was lower than 400 ft than today

Settling of the Americas

• bearing Land Bridge open 35 - 11 kya

• Settlement in Siberia by 35000 ya

• Beringia - 20 kya

Early sites in the Americas

• Coastal Chile (12,600 BCE)

  wooden structures and tools and remains of mammoth and llama meat

• Paisley Caves, Oregon

• Buttermilk Creek, TX

• White Sands in New Mexico

Extinction of megafauna in the Americas

By the end of Pleistocene, almost all megafauna in Americas were extinct due to overhunting or climate change

Overkill hypothesis

Human arrival lead to animal extinctions due to them not recognizing humans as predators

However some arguments against this could be that only few kill sites contained extinct animals

Developments in Sedentism and Domestication (Wk 5)

Agriculture- commitment to tending crops and attaining livestock, with an increased focus of activities on farming and animal hoarding

Domestication- an evolutionary process in which humans modify, either intentionally or unintentionally, the genetic makeup of a population of plants or animals, to the extent that members of those populations are unable to survive and or reproduce without human assistance

Cultivation- intentional preparation of fields, sowing, harvesting, and storing seeds and other plant parts

Sedentism means to reside in one location for extended periods during the year often using location as base for exploiting diverse , surrounding resources in the area

 Urbanization is sedentism with dramatic increase in populations, often accompanied by storable food sources, differentiation of labor tasks

Locations of independent centers of domestication

Occurred in multiple independent centers ~ 12-6 kya
• Southwest Asia (Middle East)
• South Asia
• East Asia
• Sub-Saharan Africa
• Melanesia (New Guinea)
• North America
• South America
• Mesoamerica

Neolithic Revolution

Neolithic: ~10,000 – 4500
BCE—the period when
people began to (1) use
ground stone tools and
pottery, (2) live in
permanent villages, and (3)
engage in agriculture
• Archaeology suggests 1, 2,
& 3 (the “Neolithic
Package”) may not always
go together at the same
time

Neolithic Package

(1) use
ground stone tools and
pottery, (2) live in
permanent villages, and (3)
engage in agriculture

Relationship between sedentism and domestication

Sedentism —>   increasing population —>       need for agriculture 

Sedentism as early as 13000 BP

Domestication plants around 11000 BP

Domestication of herd animals around 10500BP

Development of clay pottery around 9500 BP

Oasis Hypothesis

Plants, animals, and humans may have clustered around confined areas near water as climate conditions fluctuated at the end of Pleistocene, leading to symbiotic interactions between humans and animals. V. Gordon Childe.

Population Pressure Hypothesis

There is nothing desirable about agriculture and that it is not appealing but is needed to feed.

Co-evolution theory for domestication

The adoption of agriculture leads to an increase in human population. This also leads to domestication benefiting from it as they also increase.

Social hypotheses for domestication

Highlight the social drivers and benefits of agriculture. Once the first steps of domestication had begun, social dynamics would have spurred them onward

Paleoethnobotany

Microbotanical remains
• Pollen
• Phytoliths
• Charcoal
• Starch grains
• Macrobotanical remains
• Plant parts (stems, seeds,
fruits, etc.)
Domestication Syndrome and its components

simultaneous and rapid
germination
• simultaneous ripening
• compaction of seed heads
• loss of natural dispersal
• increase in seed size
Zooarchaeology

• Faunal remains
  • Bone
  • Horn, antler
  • Hair, feathers, hides
  • Invertebrate shell

  
  Evidence of animal
  domestication
  includes:
  • Geographic evidence
  • Abundance
  • Morphological change
  • Herd demographics
  

  Changes in animal body size related to the domestication process
  • increased meat, milk, wool
  production
  • decreased body size,
  reduced aggressiveness
  • regulation of
  reproduction, survival

• Size: domesticates usually
  smaller
  • Suboptimal conditions,
  crowding
  • Suboptimal
  nutrition=smaller adult
  animals
  • Slaughter of large, aggressive
  males
  • Early peoples’ preference for
  large numbers of small and
  more easily managed animal
  

  Plants and animals domesticated in SW Asia

  FaMajor crops - 9600-8800
  BCE -early aceramic
  Neolithic
  • Wheat
  • Barley
  • Legumes - peas, lentils, &
  beans
  • Major animals - 8800-6900
  BCE - late aceramic
  Neolithic
  • Sheep and goats
  • Cattle
  • Pigsunal remains
  • Bone
  • Horn, antler
  • Hair, feathers, hides
  • Invertebrate shell

  
  
  Plants and animals domesticated in North America

  8000 - 6000 BCE or
  earlier?
  • Two areas with
  different
  environmental
  characteristics
  • Domesticated animals
  • Pigs
  • Dogs
  • Water buffalo
  

  Plants and animals domesticated in Mesoamerica

  North & Mesoamerica
  • Dogs, turkeys
  • South America
  • Dogs, camelids, guinea pigs,
  Muscovy ducks
  • Major economic difference
  between Eurasia/Africa vs.
  America

  • 8000 BCE
    squash/gourds
    • 4500 BCE maize
    • 1000 BCE beans

  
  Communal projects
  Require large, sustained
  labor inputs
  • Subsistence
  infrastructure
  • Communal structures
  • Ritual spaces and
  tombs

  Elman Service
  cross-cultural typology

  Band, Tribe, Chiefdom, State

Band = small groups of <100 integrated by kinship;
usually mobile hunter-gatherers
• Tribe = larger groups (100s-1000s) integrated by fictive
kinship; usually subsistence farmers or herders
• Chiefdom = even larger group (1000s) integrated by
institutionalized, ranked kin relations; mostly agriculturalists,
some herders and complex hunter-gatherers
• State = societies with >1000s in population with
centralized and institutionalized economic and political
relationships; almost always agriculturalists

Prehistoric North America (Wk 6 and 7)

Poverty Point

Poverty Point Louisiana 1700- 1200 BCE

• Subsistence based on hunting and gathering

• Monumental earthworks

• Possible increased sedentism

• Forms of prestige goods present: polished beads, pendants, animal effigy carvings

Mississippian Tradition

• 800 -1600 CE

• Develops 800 CE in fertile American Bottom

• Maize agriculture

• Large towns by AD 900

Cahokia

Cahokia CE 1000 -1400

• Largest and probably earliest Mississippian center

• Mississippian politics traditionally considered chiefdoms

• 100 plus mounds distributed over 6 square miles

• Population estimates range from 10k to 20k

• Paramount center surrounded by regional centers and hamlets

Mound 72 at Cahokia

• Mass burials in ridgetop mounds

• Mound 72 - male individual on bird effigy made of marine shell along with thousands of items

• Hundreds of other burials in mound, many appear to have been sacrificed

Shell ring villages on the SE coast (Dr. Ritchison’s guest lecture)

The Calusa of Florida (Dr. Ritchison’s guest lecture)

Hohokam

Phoenix Area
• 500 main canals,
1000s of miles of
laterals to fields
• First historic
period settlers
reused Hohokam
canals

Hohokam irrigation

• Largest prehispanic irrigation system in North America

• Irrigated 25000 acres - 39 square miles in Phoenix Basin

Ancestral Pueblo

Chaco Canyon

• Occupied from 850 to 1150 CE

• Major concentration of archaeological sites

• The center of a major regional system

Hallmarks of the Chaco Phenomenon

• Construction of multiple monumental, multistoried Great Houses

• Construction of many Small Houses

• Creation of a vast road network

• Extensive community of "outlier sites"

• Importation of exotic and "luxury" goods

• Evidence of social inequality or distinctions between different individuals

Great Houses

• Formal planned architecture

• Multi storied

• Hundreds of rooms

• Included both rectangular living rooms as well as circular Kivas used for rituals

Kivas

A kiva is a space used by Puebloans for rites and political meetings, many of them associated with the kachina belief system

Interpretations of the Chaco Phenome

Redistribution Network
• Mesoamerican Trading Outpost
• Pilgrimage Site/Ritual Center
• People from surrounding area made periodic journeys to
participate in ceremonial activities in Chaco Canyon
• A State
• Militaristic control and tribute extraction from surrounding
sites
• House Society
• Great Houses are...houses