8.2 The Cold War from 1945 to 1980

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain the continuties and changes in the Cold War policies from 1945 to 1980

INTRODUCTION

• WW2 changed US from isolationist country to world leader in military & affairs

  • Most Americans wanted to return to normal domestic life

    - Truman’s presidency—→ conflict beteween Soviet & US (Cold War)

ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR

• Cold war dominated international relations from 1940-1991

  • Focused around communist Soviet Union & democratic US

    - competed directly (diplomacy) & indirectly (armed conflict w allies)

    - came close to a nuclear war on several instances

  • Historians debate on how Cold War began

    - debates arose over how Truman’s polcies affected communism

U.S.-SOVIET RELATIONS TO 1945

• Wartime alliance between US & USSR was temporary alliance from past

  • Bolshevik Revolution—→ communist gov in Russia (1917)

    - Americans viewed USSR as threat to capitalism (red scare 1917)

    - US refused to recognize USSR until 1933 (US still did not trust)

  • Nonagression pact (1939)

    - Stalin & Hitler agreed to divide Eastern Europe

    - confirmed untrusting view between US and USSR

ALLIES IN WORLD WAR II

• Hitler’s surprise invasion of Soviet Union & Japanese attack on US

  • Created US-Soviet alliance of convience (not mutal trust)

    - Soviet union blamed heavy losses due to allies

    - postwar conflicts in europe were evident in negotiaions

  • Roosevelt hoped personal diplomacy would keep Stalin in check

    - Truman quickly became suspicious of sovietys

POSTWAR COOPERATION AND THE UNITED NATIONS

• Founding of United Nations provided hopeful sign

  • General Assembly

    - created to provide representation to all member nations

  • Security Council

    - 15-member council

    - gave US, Britian,China,France, & USSR permanent seats & vetos

    - responsivile for maintaining international security & peacekeeping

  • Atomic Energy Comission was establied in UN

    - accepted by by Soviets (still rejected Barunch plan for regulating nuclear energy and eliminating atomic weapons)

    - American leaders feared rejection of Baruch Plan

• US offered Soviets partcipation in the World Bank

  • Interational Bank of Reconstruction and Development

    - meant to fund rebuilding of war-torn world

    - Soviets declined particpation (viewed bank as capitalist)

• USSR did not join Allies for Nuremberg trials of Nazi leaders

SATELLITE STATES IN EASTERN EUROPE

• Distrust turned into hostillity

  • Soviet forces remain occupied in central & eastern europe

    - Elections (promised at Yalta conference) were held but manipulated

    - Apologist argued for satellite states as protection from invasion

    - Communist dictators came to power in Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Hungary, & Czechoslovakia

  • US & British gov were alarmed by Soviet takeover

    - regarded actions as violations to democracy & open markets

    - Poland independece was especially desired (issue since WW2)

OCCUPATION ZONES IN GERMANY

• Germany & Austria were divided into temporary zones of occupation

  • Eastern zone of Germany became increasingly communist

    - known as the German Democratic Republic (under Soviet control

  • Conflict reflected differing views of national security & economy

    - Soviets wanted weak Germany (security & reparations)

    - US & Britian wanted strong Germany (no reparations 4 recovery)

    - Soviets tightend their control over East Germany

IRON CURTAIN

• Canadian spy ring stealing atomic secrets for Soviets & occupation of northern Iran—-→ get-tough policy in US

  • Iron Curtain

    - metaphor was presented by Winston Churchill

    - refered to the division between US allies (west) & Soviet allies (east)

    - called for democracies to halt expansion of communism

CONTAINMENT IN EUROPE

• Truman adopted containment policy (to prevent communism w/o war)

  • Formulated by George Marshall, Dean Acheson, George Kennan

    - Kennan wrote USSR would retreat through firm, patient resistance

    - Walter Lippmann thought policy was too broad (key areas needed)

    - past failures of appeasement directly challenged communist threats

THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE

• Truman implemented containment to two threats:

  • Communist-led uprising against government in Greece

  • Soviet demands for control of water routes in Turkey

• Truman Doctrine

  • President asked congress for $400 million in economic & military aid

    - would assist “free people” in Greece and Turkey against “totlitarians”

    - his alarmist speech oversimplifed situation but gained support

THE MARSHALL PLAN

• Europe was in ruins (short in food & deep in debt)

  • Harsh winter continued to demoralize Europeans

    - discontent—→ growth of communist party (especially in France & Italy)

    - Truman feared western democracies would vote for communist

• George Marshall outlined program to provide economic aid & stability to Europe

  • Marshall Plan

    - $12 billion dollar in aid was approved for distribution to Western Europe

    - US offered plan to Soviets & satellite states (USSR refused dependency)

EFFECTS

• Marshall plan worked exactly as hoped

  • Massive infusion of US dollars—→ western europe acheiving self-growth

    - ended threats of communist political successes

    - bolstered US prosperity (increased US exports to Europe)

    - also deepend riff between west and east

THE BERLIN AIRLIFT

• Major crisis of Cold War was Berlin

  • Soviets blocked all land access to West Berlin (1948)

    - Truman dismissed plans to withdraw, but also rejected using force

    - Truman launched Berlin Airlift (delivered essential supplies to west by air)

    - Truman also sent 60 bombers capable of carring atomic bombs to England

    - Stalin decided not challenge airlift

  • Soviets decided to open up highways to Berlin (1949)

    - Marked end of blockade

  • Crisis created two Germanys:

    - Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany)

    - German Democratic Republic (East Germany)

    - Berlin was located in GDR (split into sectors allied w US and Soviets)

NATO AND NATIONAL SECURITY

• Truman broke tradition of isolationism by recommending us join NATO

  • NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

    - Military defense pact to protect western Europe

    - General Eisenhower became first supreme commander (stationed US troops in Western Europe to detterent against Soviet invasion)

  • Warsaw Pact

    - military alliance for defense among communist states of Eastern Europe

    - counter by Soviets against NATO

NATIONAL SECURITY ACT (1947)

• National Security Act was passed to modernize US military capacity

  • Centralized Department of Defense

    - replaced war department

    - coordinates operations of army, navy, and air force

  • National Security Council (NSC)

    - coordinates making of foreign policy

  • Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

    - to gather information of foreign governments

  • Selective Service System & Peacetime military draft were instituted

ATOMIC WEAPONS

• Scientist in US & USSR were engaged in arms race (competion to develop superior weapons system)

  • US was orginally only nation to have atomic bomb

    - developed new generation of long-range bombers for nukes

  • Soviets tested thier first atomic bomb in 1949

    - Truman approved development of hydrogen bomb (H-bomb)

    - H-bomb was 1000x more powerful than the A-bomb

  • NATO secret report NSC-68 provided measures for Cold War:

    - quadaruple US defense spending to 20% of GNP

    - convincle public costly buildup was nescessary for defense

    - form alliance with non-communist countries

EVALUATING U.S. POLICY

• Critics argued buildup intensified Russian fears & unecessary arms race

  • NATO still became one of the most successful military alliances

    - deterrent power of nuclear weapons checked Soviet expansion

    - maintain uneasy peace until collapse of Soviet union

COLD WAR IN ASIA

• Containment policy in Europe did not happen in Asia

  • Old imperalist system in India & Southeast Asia crumbled

    - new nations formed (bitter against colonialism—→ resisted US)

    - Japan became most closely tied with US defense system

JAPAN

• US & General Douglas MacArthur took over reconstruction of Japan

  • Seven Japanese generals were tried for war crimes & executed

  • New constitution & parliamentary democracy was established

    - Kept emperor Hirohito as ceremonial head (refused divinity)

    - renounced war as national policy & limited military capacity

    - Japan depended on military protection of US

U.S.-JAPANESE SECURITY TREATIES

• Japan gave up claims to Korea & some Pacific islands

  • US ended occupation of Japan but remained in military bases

    - provided protection against external enemies (communist)

    - Japan became stong ally & prospered under American sheild

THE PHILLIPINES AND THE PACFIC

• Phillipines became independent republic

  • US still retained important naval & air bases throughout Cold War

    - Pacific ocean began to look like American lake

CHINA

• Chiang Kai-shek & the Nationalist to controlled China

  • Chiang received military aid from US during WW2 against Japan

    - Civil war resumed between Nationalist & Communist (led by Mao Zedong)

    - Nationalist were losing loyalty due to infaltion & corruption

    - Communist appealed to poor & landless peasants

US POLICY

• George Marshall was sent to China to end civil war (compromise fell apart)

  • Chiang’s armies were in retreat

    - Turman ruled out large-scale invasion to rescue Chiang

    - Congress voted to give Nationalist $400 million (80% went to Communist hands because of corruption & collapse in army)

TWO CHINAS

• All of mainland China was controlled by the Communist (1949)

  • Chiang & Nationalist retreated to island under Japanese rule (Taiwan)

    - Chiang still claimed to be head of Chinese gov (with US support)

    - US refused to recognize People’s Republic of China until 1979

    - Stalin & Mao signed Sino-Soviet pact (added to fears of communist)

THE KOREANW AR

• Former Japanese colony, Korea, was divided along 38th parallel by victors

  • Soviets occupied territory North, US occupied territory South

    - North was later placed in hands of Communist Kim II Sung

    - South was placed under conservative nationalist Syngman Rhee

INVASION

• North Korean army invaded South Korea in 1950

  • Truman called for immeditate special session in UN for containment

    - Security council allowed UN force to defend south against invasion

    - US troops made up most of UN forces (commanded by MacArthur)

    - US congress supported use of military but failed to declare war

COUNTERATTACK

• War went badly at first

  • North Koreans pushed back South & US forces to peninsula

    - MacArthur reversed war by assault at Inchon behind North lines

    - UN procceds to destory as much of Northern army, advancing North

    - MacArthur failed to heed China’s warnings

    - masses of Chinese troops crossed into Korea (drove UN out North)

TRUMAN VERSUS MACARTHUR

• MacArthur stabilized fighting near 38th parallel

  • Called for expanding the war (included bombing & invading China)

    - Truman cautioned MacArthur on public statements against policy

    - General spoke out anyways (was recalled for insubordination)

  • MacArthur retuned as hero

    - most Americans understood his statement rather than containment

    - critics attacked Turman and Democrats as appeasers in Asia

STALEMENT

• Neither side seembed able to win

  • Fighting was stalled a front north of 38th parallel

    - peace talks began in Panmunjom

POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES

• Truman’s containment worked in greater perspective

  • Stopped communist agression w/o allowing conflict to develop

    - Korean war justified expanding & funding military overseas

• Republicans were unsatisifed w stalement & success of Mao in China

  • Characterized Truman & Democrats to be soft on communism

    - republicans won presidental race in 1952 with Dwight Eisenhower

EISENHOWER AND THE COLD WAR

• President Dwight D. EIsenhower focused on foreign policy & Cold War

  • Secretary of State John Foster Dulles

    - helped shape US foreign policy throughout Eisenhower’s presidency

DULLES’S DIPLOMACY

• Dulles was critical of containment policy

  • Advocated for '“new look” to foreign policy

    - took initiative to challenging USSR & Republic of China

    - encouraged Eastern Europeans and nationalist

    - pleased conservatives alarmed others

    - Brinkmanship: declared US would back down bc of superirority

MASSIVE RETALIATION

• Dulles advoated relying more on nuclear weapons & air power

  • “more bang for the buck”

    - thought less spending on military would balance federal budget

  • Policy of massic retaliation

    - was viewed a policy for mutal annihilation

    - nuclear weapons discouraged superpowers fighting all-out-war

  • Weapons did not prevent “hot wars” in developing nations

    - US & USSR backed opposing side, expanding conflict

    - refused to use small nuclear weapons (prevented escalation)

KOREAN ARMISTICE

• Eisenhower went to Korean to visit UN forces to end war

  • Diplomacy, threat of nukes, & death of Stalin

    - moved China & North Korea to agree to armistice & give prisoners

    - fighting stopped and most troops were withdrawn

    - Korea remained divided near the 38th parallel w/o permanent peace

    - 2.5 million died in Korea, including 36,914 Americans

U.S.-SOVIET RELATIONS

• US diplomatic relations with USSR were crucial

  • Relations between two fluctuated between calm & extreme tension

SPIRIT OF GENEVA

• Eisenhower called for slowdown in arms race & “atoms of peace” plan

  • Soviets also show signs of wanting to reduce Cold War tensions

    - withdrew their troops from Austria

    - established peaceful realtions with Greece and Turkey

• Improved relations—→ summit meeting in Geneva, Switzerland

  • Eisenhower proposed “open-skies” policy

    - opened each other’s territories to aeiral photoggraphy

    - would eleiminate chance of surprise nuclear attack

    - Soviets rejected proposal

  • Spirit of Geneva

    - produced first thaw in the cold war

    - speech by new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin & supported “peaceful coexistence” with the west

HUNGARIAN REVOLT

• Calm in Cold War—→ workers in East Germany & poland demanding reform

  • Populist uprising in Hungary succeeded in overthrowing government

    - new liberal leaders wanted Hungary out of Warsaw Pact

    - Khrushchev sent tanks to crush freedom fighting & restore control

    - Eisenhower feared sending aid would lead to war

    - Hungarian Revolt ended first thaw in cold war & talks of liberation

SPUTNIK SHOCK

• USSR launced first satellites into orbit around Earth

  • Technological leadership of US was questioned

    - US rockets designed to depulicate Soviets failed repeatedly

    - critics attacked American schools for lack of STEM

  • National Defense and Education Act (NDEA)

    - authorized bigger budgert for school for math, science, & language

  • National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

    - created to direct US efforts to build missles and explore outer space

    - authorized billions to compete in space race

  • Sputnik intensified fear of nuclear war

    - missles launded from satellites could deliver war heads in minutes

    - there was no defense against them

SECOND BERLIN CIRSIS

• Soviet pride from Sputnik—→ Khrushchev pushing Berlin issues

  • Gave west 6 months to pull its tropps before turning over city to East

    - US refused (invited Khrushchev to US to defuse situation)

    - Nations agreed to put off the crisis for another summit conference

U-2 INCIDENT

• “Spirit of Camp David” never produced results

  • Russians shot down US spy plane (U-2) over USSR before conferece

    - exposed secret US tatic for gaining information

    - US conducted regular spying over soviet terriory for missle program

    - Eisenhower took full responsibiloty after they were exposed

    - Khrushchev denounced US & walked out of Paris summit

COMMUNISM IN CUBA

• Cuba emerged as a Communist country

  • Fidel Castro overthrew Cuban dictator Fuelgencio Batista

    - nationalized American-owned businesses & properties in Cuba

    - Eisenhower retaliated by cutting of trade

  • Castro turned to Soviets for support & set up totalitarian state

    - Eisenhower authroized CIA to train anti-communist Cuban exiles

    - invasion became responsibility of John F. Kenndey

EISENHOWERS LEGACY

• Eisenhower claimed credit for checking communist & keeping peace

  • Started long process of relaxing tensions

    - initiated first arms limitations (suspending testing of nuclear weapons)

¨MILITARY-INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX¨

• Eisenhowers farewell address

  • Spoke out against negative impact of the Cold War on US

    - warned nation against dangers of military-industrial complex

    - feated arms race would lead to excessive military power

    - some Americans feared US would turn into a military/imperial state

TO THE BRINK OF WAR AND BACK

• John F. Kennedy was elected (1960)

  • Attacked Eisenhower for recession & letting Soviets lead arms race

BAY OF PIGS INVASION

• JFK arppoved plan to use Cuban exiles to overthrow Castro

  • CIA trained forces landed at the Bay of Pigs

    - failed to set off general uprising as planned (stuck at bay)

    - anti-Castro Cubans surrendered after JFK rejected to save them

  • Castro used failed invasion to get more aid from USSR

BERLIN WALL

• Kennedy agreed to meet Khrushchev in Vienna

  • Khrushchev seized opportunity to threaten JFK & renew demands

    - requested US pull its troops out of Berlin

    - JFK refused—→ Soviets building wall around west Berlin

    - wall was meant to stop East Germans from feeling to the West

  • US & Soviet tanks faced off in Berlin

    - Kennedy made no move to stop the completion of wall

    - traveled to west to assure residents for US support

  • Berlin Wall

    - stood as gloomy symbol of cold war (until torn down by east)

CUBAN MISSIBLE CRISIS (1962)

• Castro & Soviets were to build underground missle site after Bay of Pigs

  • US soon discovered evidence of construction

    - Kennedy repsonded by setting up naval blockade on Cuba

    - Soviet ships challenged blockade (full-scale nuclear war might result)

  • Khrushchev agreed to remove missles in exchange for:

    - pledge against invasion on Cuba

    - removal of US missles from Turkey

  • Crisis had sobering effect on both sides

    - established telecommunication hotline between both leaders

    - US, USSR, & other nations signed the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (ended testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere)

    - control in nuclear arms was offset by new arms race

FLEXIBLE RESPONSE

• “Bushfire wars” in Africa & Southeast Asia were a different challenge

  • Insrugent forced aided by Soviets challenged gov ties to US

    - Congo & Laos convinced JFK to rethink retalliation & nukes

  • JFK enacted the flexibile-response policy

    - options to less likely escalate global destruction

    - increased spending on nonnuclear arms & mobiles forces

    - increased temtation to send elite special forces into combat globally

LYNDON JOHNSON BECOMES PRESIDENT

• President Kennedy was assassinated during a visit to TX

  • Vice president Lyndon Johnson took over

    - was more interested in domestic reforms than foreign policy

    - continued containment policy (including in Vietnam)

    - escalation in the Vietnam war continued to engage Soviets

  • Johnson negotiated agreements w Soviets over nukes

    - signed outerspace treaty & Strategic Arms limitation talks

    - US, UK, & USSR signed non-proliferation treaty (each signatory agreed not to assit in developing or acquire nukes)

    - disarmament was stopped after supression in Prague Spring (attempt to democratize Czechoslovakia)

NIXON’S DETENE DIPLOMACY

• President Richard M. Nixon promised to bring Americans back together

  • Nixon focused on international relations more than domestic policy

    - was able to end war in Vietnam and reduce Cold War tensions

    - aided by national security adviser, Henry Kissinger

DETENTE

• Nixon and Kissinger strengthed US position

  • took advantage of rivalry between USSR & China

    - diplomacy was praised for bringing deliberate reduction war (detene)

    - Nixon’s conduct of foreign affiards enchanced world peace

VISIT TO CHINA

• Nixon took the initiative to improve relations with Mao Zedong

  • Nixon astonished the world by traveling to Bejing to meet with Mao

    - initiated diplomatic exchanges—→ recognition of Communist gov

ARMS CONTROL WITH THE U.S.S.R.

• US pressured USSR into signing treaty through new relations w China

  • Antiballistic Missles (ABMS)

    - new technology that would have expanded the arms race

  • Stategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT 1)

    - USSR & US negotated first agreements to place limties on arms

    - US secured soviet consent to freeze ballistic missles

    - significant step in reducing cold war tensions & bringing detene

ANOTHER CHILL IN THE COLD WAR

• Watergate scandal & fall of South Vietnam—→ Americans losing trust in gov

  • Presidents faced oppostion in congress against further military action

  • Congress continued to investigate abuses in executive branch

    - CIA was accused of engineering assassinations of foreign leaders

    - President Ford appointed George H. W. Bush to reform agency

SOVIETS INVADE AFGHANISTAN

• President Jimmy Carter attempted to continue policy of detene

  • US officially recognized the People’s Republic of China

    - ended recognition of Taiwan

    - exchanged ambassadors for the first time

  • SALT II Treaty (1979)

    - Carter signed the Stategic Arms Limitation Talks w USSR

    - aimed to limit number of nuclear delivery systems for both powers

    - US senate never ratified treaty due to tensions in Afghanistan

• Soviet invasion in Afghanistan ended improved US-Soviet relations

  • Fear of Soviet control in the Persian Gulf (oil-rich)—→

    - embargo on grain exports & high tech to USSR

    - boycotting the 1980 Olympics in Moscow

    - shift towards military buildup

  • Tensions returned again after Carter’s administration

VIEWS OF THE COLD WAR

• Traditional views (1940s-1950s)

  • Soviet control by Stalin started the Cold war

    - USSR took control of Eastern Europe after WW2

    - US was seen as a leader of the free world against communism

• Revisionist View (1960s-1970s)

  • Public unhappiness over Vietnam—→ questions over US starting war

    - Truman was blamed for antagonizing USSR over Poland & Balkans

  • Gar Alperovitz (wrote The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb)

    - concluded Truman dropped atomic bombs in Japan to warn Stalin

• Modernist View

  • John L. Gaddis (The Cold War: A New History)

    - argued cause of Cold War were rooted in allies’ failure to reconcile

    - rivalries between powers were natural (made conflict unavoidable)

    - important aspect of Cold War is what did not happen (nuclear war)