APHuG 1.1

1.1 Introduction to Maps

  • Branches of Geography

    • Physical Geography: Study of spatial characteristics of the physical environment.

    • Human Geography: Study of spatial characteristics of humans and human activities.

  • Types of Maps

    • Reference Maps: Used for general information about places.

    • Political maps: Label human-created boundaries and designations.

    • Physical maps: Label natural features such as mountains, rivers, and deserts.

    • Road maps: Display highways, streets, and transportation routes.

    • Plat maps: Show property lines and land ownership boundaries.

    • Thematic Maps: Display spatial aspects of specific information or phenomena.

    • Choropleth maps: Use colors or shading patterns to show location and distribution of spatial data.

    • Dot distribution maps: Use dots to show the specific location and distribution of features across a map.

    • Graduated symbol maps: Use symbols of varying sizes to represent different quantities.

    • Isoline maps: Use lines connecting points of equal value to show data variations across space.

    • Topographic maps: Specific isoline maps that connect points of equal elevation.

    • Cartogram: Resizes land areas based on a specific statistical variable.

  • 4-Level Analysis & ESPNDCG Framework

    • Level 1 (Comprehension): Identify what, where, when, scale, and source.

    • Level 2 (Identification): Identify spatial patterns in the source.

    • Level 3 (Explanation): Explain why and how a pattern occurred.

    • Level 4 (Prediction): Predict economic, societal, political, or environmental impacts.

    • ESPNDCG: Consider effects on Economy, Society, Politics, eNvironment, Demographics, Culture, and Gender.

  • Map Scale & Spatial Patterns

    • Cartographic Scale: Ratio of map size to actual earth size (words, ratio, or line scale).

    • Small scale maps: Show larger land areas with less detail.

    • Large scale maps: Show smaller land areas with greater detail.

    • Distance & Direction:

    • Absolute distance: Measured in standard units of length (e.g., miles or kilometers).

    • Relative distance: Expressed in time or effort (e.g., an 8-minute drive).

    • Absolute/Relative Direction: Cardinal directions (North, South, East, West) or orientation relative to landmarks.

    • Arrangement:

    • Clustering: Features concentrated or grouped closely together.

    • Dispersal: Features spread out over a wide area.

    • Elevation: Distance of features measured above sea level.

  • Map Projections & Distortion (SADD)

    • Maps inevitably distort Shape, Area, Distance, or Direction (SADD) when projecting a spherical globe onto a flat surface.

    • Mercator Projection:

    • Strengths: Accurate directions; latitude and longitude lines intersect at right angles. Ideal for navigation.

    • Distortions: Landmasses near poles appear excessively large; longitudinal spacing appears constant.

    • Peters Projection:

    • Strengths: Accurate landmass sizes for spatial distributions.

    • Distortions: Inaccurate shapes, especially elongated near the poles.

    • Conic Projection:

    • Strengths: Longitude lines converge; latitude lines curve; size and shape are realistic for midlatitude regions.

    • Distortions: Direction is not constant across the entire map.

    • Robinson Projection:

    • Strengths: Balanced overall appearance with an oval shape similar to a globe; no extreme distortion.

    • Distortions: All aspects (area, shape, size, direction) are slightly distorted.

1.2 Geographical Data

  • Methods of Data Collection

    • Fieldwork: Gathering data in person through field observations, landscape analysis, personal interviews, taking notes, sketching maps, and photographic interpretation.

    • Written Accounts & Documents: Media reports, travel narratives, and policy documents.

  • Geospatial Technologies

    • Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Computer software designed to store, analyze, and display layered spatial patterns and relationships (used for urban planning, crime analysis, and pollution tracking).

    • Satellite Navigation Systems (GPS): Uses satellite signals to determine precise absolute locations, boundaries, and navigation paths.

    • Remote Sensing: Gathering environmental data from satellites or high-altitude aerial photography (used for tracking land cover, weather, and environmental changes).

1.3 The Power of Geographic Data

  • Applications of Spatial Data

    • Census Data: Collected every 10 years in the US to gather demographic information about households.

    • Decision Making: Geospatial tools and census data inform personal decisions, business location strategies, and government policies across local, national, and global scales.

1.4 Spatial Concepts

  • Location & Place

    • Absolute Location: Precise spot defined by a coordinate system (latitude and longitude).

    • Relative Location: Position of a place defined in relation to surrounding features.

    • Space: Physical gap or distance between two or more objects.

    • Place: Specific location distinguished by human and physical characteristics.

    • Site: Internal physical attributes of a location (e.g., soil, climate, labor force).

    • Situation: Location relative to surrounding connections and accessibility.

  • Spatial Interactions

    • Distance Decay: Decreasing interaction between two places as the distance between them increases.

    • Time-Space Compression: Reduction in relative distance and time between locations due to advances in transportation and communication.

    • Flow: Movement of people, ideas, goods, or phenomena across space.

    • Pattern: General spatial arrangement of objects or features being studied.

1.5 Human-Environment Interaction

  • Nature and Society

    • Sustainability: Utilizing natural resources responsibly so they remain available for future generations without degrading the environment.

    • Natural Resources:

    • Renewable: Naturally replenished resources (e.g., solar, air, water, biomass).

    • Non-renewable: Finite resources depleted by human consumption (e.g., fossil fuels, underground aquifers, minerals).

    • Land Use: Ways humans modify, organize, and manage land for residential, agricultural, or economic purposes.

  • Theories of Interaction

    • Environmental Determinism: Belief that physical climate and landforms dictate human behavior, culture, and societal development.

    • Possibilism: Concept that while the natural environment imposes limits, human culture and technology allow societies to adapt and overcome environmental constraints.

1.6 Scales of Analysis

  • Levels of Scale

    • Geographic Scale: Spatial extent of the area being studied.

    • Scales of Analysis:

    • Global: Examines patterns across the entire world.

    • Regional: Analyzes patterns across multiple countries within a world region.

    • National: Focuses on a single country.

    • National Regional: Examines sub-regions within a single country.

    • Local: Analyzes data at the level of states, counties, cities, or neighborhoods.

    • Scale Interpretation: Changing scales of analysis reveals varying patterns, variations, and spatial interpretations of data.

1.7 Regional Analysis

  • Defining Regions

    • Region: Area of Earth defined by unifying characteristics, boundaries, or spatial patterns of activity.

    • Types of Regions:

    • Formal Region: Area defined by official boundaries or uniform cultural/physical characteristics throughout (e.g., Spain, Quebec, Dayton).

    • Functional (Nodal) Region: Area organized around a central focal node connected by movement or services (e.g., pizza delivery zones, bus routes, school districts).

    • Perceptual (Vernacular) Region: Area defined by informal perception, cultural identity, or spatial belief rather than strict boundaries (e.g., "The South", "The Rust Belt").

    • Regional Boundaries: Boundaries are often transitional, overlapping, and subject to debate across local, national, and global scales.