1. Introduction to Urbanization

• Urbanization is the process of population concentration into cities. 

  • This phenomenon has been a defining characteristic of human development over the last century. 

• Understanding the factors that drive urbanization is crucial for comprehending the challenges and opportunities posed by the urban environment.
  

Key Concepts:

• Urbanization: 

  • The increasing concentration of populations in urban areas.

• Rural-Urban Migration: 

  • The movement of people from rural areas to urban centres.

• Push and Pull Factors: 

  • Forces that encourage people to leave rural areas (push) and attract them to urban areas (pull).

Causes of Urbanization:

• Industrialization: 

  • The shift from agrarian economies to industrialized societies often leads to the growth of urban centres.

• Employment Opportunities: 

  • Cities offer diverse job opportunities, drawing people seeking employment.

• Technological Advancements: 

  • Improved transportation and communication contribute to increased urbanisation

Urbanization:

• Site: actual land on which a settlement is built; situation: r/s w/ its surroundings

  • Desirability enhanced with physical, social and economic factors (esp w/ industrialization and trade)

• Industrial, service (recreation or transport)/residential role (incl open space) can change in proportion over time

  • Agricultural roles → steadily diminished in urban areas 

    • Mostly in rural areas where population density is low

  • Industrialized areas with good access to resources 

    • develop to become cities

• Vertical Zoning: same building is used for 1 function:1 floor and another function on another floor to make up for the lack of space in urban areas

• Range: max distance people are prepared to travel for G&S 

  • Threshold: minimum number of people required for a G&S to stay in business

  • Sphere of Influence: area served by a settlement

• Low-Order Goods: necessities (need only a small hamlet - dispersed, individual households w/small population to support) → limited range

• High-Order Goods: luxuries (shared by a few villages due to specialization) → larger population

• Conurbation: ≥ 2 cities merge, millionaire city & megacity, 

  • Metacity: large-scale city regions

  • Megalopolis: cities sprawl and merge into 1

• Large urban areas provide large number of high-order and low-order goods to a large population

Megacities:

• Dominated by young adults (migrate searching for jobs) → high birth rates

• Rapid EG and urbanization → large generation of wealth and large scale of environmental impacts new forms of planning and management to cope

Urban Growth and Economic Development:

• Correlation between urban growth and ED

• Commercial, industrial, political, administral and social function

  • Stimulus for development, EOS for health and education, ethnic, tribal and religious intermixing → weaken ties to traditional rural beliefs and customs

• Cannot cope w/ growing population

  • high rates of unemployment 

  • overloaded & overcrowded

  • transport systems

  •  air, water and noise pollution

  •  insufficient housing, sanitation and water supplies

  •  deteriorating infrastructure and shortfalls in service delivery

  • Growing inequalities in access to infrastructure and services due to income gap → increased prevalence of social problems

  • Many health issues occur as an indirect impact ⇒ decline in quality of life

Urban Settlement Functions:

• Trade and comms, mining and industrial areas, tourist resorts, govt services and high-tech industries (administrative center)

• Settlements in favored areas have greater growth potential and a greater range of services and functions (may change over time)

  • Lowland coastal plains w/ links inland

• Vance: development of settlements occurred as a result of trade interactions (external influences → centers of innovation for external commercial forces

• Losch: cities grow due to transport accessibility that plays a large role in efficiency and can produce corridors or urban areas

• Build new towns and new capital cities to deflect growth to accommodate the overspill population and ease chronic overcrowding + redistribute the state's wealth

  • Relocation of people to ensure their environment for living and working is ideal

Factors of Urban Economic Activity Patterns: 

• Bid-Rent Theory: limited land at the city centre that is most expensive as it's the most accessible land to public transport 

  • Secondary peaks at intersections of main roads and ring roads (multi nuclei) & increased use of private transport in inner city areas

• Low-Order Goods: neighborhood stores and shopping parades (shop clusters)

• High-Order Goods: high street shops, dept stores

• Out-of-Town Superstores and Retail Parks: large outlets close to residential areas

• Congestion and inflated land price in city center → sub & counter-urbanization (increased accessibility to these sites) of more affluent households

• Changes:

  • Economic change → more women in paid work → increased standard of living & car ownership

  • Demographic change → smaller households, more elderly → online shopping

  • Tech change→ more families own deep freezers (don't need to shop daily) 

  • closure of high street shops due to changes in shopping habits (govt policies to revitalize retailing in central areas & inner-city redevelopment) - e.g. traffic-free zones

• Leads to decentralization of other commercial activity and business parks in suburban sites

• Central Business Districts: commercial and economic core of a city (coincides with/ place of peak land value)

• Industrial Zones: inner-city areas and brownfield suburban sites (near airports) away from residential areas (pollution)

  • Those needing skilled labor, access to CBD and urban market for distribution

•  Cities are major centers of innovation, ideas and fashion → manufacturing centers + access to international market through a variety of labor (skilled and unskilled) → large markets

• Planning urban economic activities: restrict development in particular areas (pollution)
  

Factors Affecting Location of Urban Areas:

• Ethnic groups choose to live together for bonding and people to rely on (+ve segregation) 

  •  -ve segregation: certain groups excluded from certain areas (legally) - apartheid

  • Multiracial policy of locating all racial groups target on housing estate for racial harmony

• Planning to achieve a balanced social mix (housing types and people)

  • People in rich neighborhoods may resist development of socially affordable housing / move to outer suburbs if this happens

  • Priv developments favor the rich: can choose where they live and are more willing to pay for the housing → occupy higher-quality land

Urban Poverty, Deprivation and Informal Activity in Urban Areas:

• Deprivation can be measured through physical, social, economic and political indices

• Slum: group of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area lacking ≥ 1: durable housing (protection from extreme climatic conditions), sufficient living space (max 3 in a room), access to improved water (sufficient, affordable, obtained w/o extreme effort), access to sanitation facilities, secure tenure (protection against forced eviction)

• Dual Economy: mix of formal (foreign owned, more elite) and informal economic activity (small scale, labor intensive, locally owned)

  • Bazaar Economy: small trade and service establishments (family enterprises) - intense competition keeps prices low and supports a low standard of living

  • Street Economy: low earnings and standard of living (street hawkers, beggars, prostitutes)

• Informal economy relieves the economic problems of the poor by using their energy and small-scale assistance to improve circumstances

• Informal economy allows exploitation of the poor by the rich (cheap labor to keep cost of production down)

2. Urban Patterns and Land Use

• Understanding the spatial organization of cities is essential for analyzing the urban environment. Urban patterns and land use are influenced by historical, social, and economic factors.
  

Key Concepts:

• Land Use Zones: Areas within a city with specific functions, such as residential, commercial, industrial, and recreational zones.

• Central Business District (CBD): The core of a city, usually characterized by high-density commercial and office buildings.

• Residential Areas: Spaces dedicated to housing and accommodation.

• Industrial Zones: Areas designated for manufacturing and industrial activities.

Urban Patterns:

• Concentric Zone Model: Developed by sociologist Ernest Burgess, this model envisions a city with concentric rings, each representing different land use zones.

• Sector Model: Proposed by Homer Hoyt, this model suggests that cities develop in pie-shaped sectors based on transportation routes.

• Multiple Nuclei Model: Developed by Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman, this model argues that cities have multiple centres of development.

Challenges of Urban Land Use:

• Urban Sprawl: The uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into surrounding rural landscapes.

• Gentrification: The transformation of a neighborhood through the influx of more affluent residents and businesses.

Urbanization, Natural Increase and Population Movements

• Increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas caused by rural-to-urban migration, higher rates of natural increase in urban areas, reclassification of rural areas as urban ones 

• Cycle of urbanization, suburbanization, counter-urbanization and re-urbanization

• Natural increase & birth rates 

• Rural-Urban Migration: movement of people away from countryside to towns and cities (people believe they're better off in urban areas)

  • Push and pull factors

• Gentrification: reinvestment of capital into inner-city areas (residential and commercial areas) 

  • Social displacement of poor people: house prices rise poor cannot afford and move out → young mobile population takes their place

• Re-Urbanization: revitalization of urban areas and a movement of people back into these areas 

• Suburbanization: outward expansion of towns and cities (town extensions and increased scope of public transport)

  • Low IR → lower cost of living + willingness of local authorities to provide utilities - improved public transport → expansion of building societies

• Counter-Urbanization: movement of population away from larger urban areas to smaller and newer towns on the edge of city limits

  • Due to high land price and crime rate, congestion, pollution, lack of community and declining services in urban areas

• Urban Sprawl: uncontrolled growth of urban areas at their edges (prevented by green belts)

•  Urban system growth → increased need to provide access to clean water, sanitation and waste disposal → increase risk of diseases and burden on authorities

  • Expand transport facilities and telecom networks to attract new economic activity and match pop growth w/ infrastructure growth

The Causes and Consequences of Urban Deindustrialization

• Long-term decline in employment in the manufacturing sectors of an economy → job loss

  •  +ve: industries reduce workforce to increase productivity thru rationalization and mechanization → more competitive

• Overseas competition from newly industrialized countries (NIC)/introduction of rival product → fall in DD → rationalization (cost cutting and decrease labor → unemployment)

  • Exhaustion of resources → increasing costs of raw materials/lack of capital - automation and new tech take over

  • Removal of subsidy/imposition of tax → higher COP (lay off workers to maintain profit)

• Gains in service sector but cannot compensate for manufacturing loss

  • New jobs (part-time and low paid) mostly taken by women - older firms → less competitive and less innovative (unskilled labor)

  • Areas of disinvestment (massive outflows of capital and labor - filled by commuters from outside the city areas)

• Reindustrialization: growth of high-tech industries, small firms and services

3. Urban Challenges and Solutions

• The rapid growth of cities presents numerous challenges that require innovative solutions. Understanding these challenges is crucial for sustainable urban development.
  

Key Concepts:

• Sustainability: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

• Infrastructure: The fundamental facilities and systems serving a city, including transportation, water supply, and energy networks.

Challenges:

• Traffic Congestion: The result of increased urbanization, inadequate transportation systems, and a growing number of vehicles.

• Housing Shortages: High demand for housing can lead to shortages and increased prices.

• Environmental Degradation: Urbanization often results in pollution, deforestation, and habitat loss.

• Social Inequality: Disparities in income and access to resources can lead to social unrest.

Solutions:

• Smart Cities: Integration of technology to improve the efficiency of urban services.

• Mixed-Use Development: Combining residential, commercial, and recreational spaces to reduce the need for extensive transportation.

• Green Infrastructure: Incorporating natural elements into urban planning to promote environmental sustainability.

Urban Microclimates

• Structure of air above urban area and structure of the urban surface

• Radiation and sunshine: industrial haze → reduced visibility ; greater scattering of soil water retention by dust & higher absorption of longer waves due to surfaces & CO₂ → more diffuse sky radiation 

  • Also heat produced by human activity

• Summer: higher incidence of thicker cloud cover  vs     winter - increased convection and air

• Pollution: higher incidence of radiation fog and smog

  • Concentration of hygroscopic particles increased condensation + higher day temps

  • Urban pollution and photochemical smog trap outgg radiant energy

• Temperature: more heat energy retention and release → heat islands ; heating from below → increased air mass instability overhead ; big local contrasts btw sunny and shaded surfaces 

• Pressure and winds: severe gusting and turbulence around tall buildings → strong local pressure gradients from windward to leeward walls; canyon effect: deep, narrow streets are much calmer

  • Turbulence of air may be reduced overall

  • Higher building height and urban surface roughness → lower wind speed

• Lack of avail moisture and higher temp: decrease in RH 

• Greater instability and stronger convection above built-up areas → higher incidence of thunder and more intense storms & less snowfall and briefer covers 

• Burning fossil fuels (domestic & commercial use): exceed energy inputs from sun 

• Buildings have a lower albedo: higher capacity to retain and conduct heat

• Surface character, rapid drainage and lower wind speed: reduction in heat required for evapo(transpi)ration

  • Also changes airflow patterns → reduction of heat diffusion

  • Fewer open H2O bodies → less evaporation and plants → less transpiration

• Urban area is warmer than surrounding rural area especially by dawn during anticyclonic conditions (calm, high pressure)

  • Develop pollution dome w/ cooler air above it that prevents pollutants from dispersing (day: prevent incoming radiation, night: prevent LWR from escaping → small temp diff)

Air Pollution Patterns

• Pop growth in urban areas → industrial development energy and heating → increased air pollution → increase in no. of vehicles and DD for

  • Indoor air pollution: burning of firewood and paraffin (DCs) for cooking and heating as they do not have as much resources to cope w/ pop growth and provide services

• LICs and NICs: weaker economies → minimal I in pollution control + use cheap, inefficient energy resources and cannot tackle air pollution effectively

  • Worsened by expanding car industries for ED (increased private car ownership)

  •  Roads are also in a poor state which reduces the quality of vehicles

Pollution Management Strategies

• Use more energy-efficient tech, public transport, car pooling schemes, cycling/walking → burn less fossil fuels

• Use catalytic converters (reduce emissions of NOx)

• Raise enforcement of emission standards (cheaper to lower emissions than clean up pollution) 

• Green spaces can reduce the effects of urban heat island (increased evapotranspiration → lower temperature → lower energy use), noise levels and air pollution

  • Tree shade has great cooling potential and improves air quality

Traffic Congestion Patterns, Trends and Impacts

• More congested on weekdays, start of sch year, festivals and national holidays 

  • Weekdays: morning and evening peak

• Noise disturbance may cause people to move due to its associated health risks

Contested Land

• 2016  Rio de Janeiro Olympics: property boom in central favelas (drug gangs eliminated) displaced people for games-related purposes

• Occupy movement: anti-capitalist protests to bring attention to the huge profits and inequalities generated by the financial services

• Dharavi, Mumbai: connected by all railways and is a potential intl business destination → could be developed into a financial/service district but would displace 1m ppl

  • Slum: means of escaping poverty, home to thousands of micro-industries → attracts labor due to large informal economy

Depletion of Urban Green Spaces

• Green spaces have little economic value and are not favored by developers yet is impt for physical and mental well-being

• Increased thru compensatory afforestation projs but does not serve to decrease air or noise pollution (QOL factors)

Urban Crime

• Crime hotspots: residential areas w/ lack of health centres, schs, recreational areas and police stations → easy access and lack of security

  • Areas w/ high no.s of offenders and crime targets commit crimes → increase incentive and ability to

• Increase surveillance (more police officers on patrol and more CCTV use): 

  • Improved street lighting and buildings designed to reduce dark areas

  • More taxi services during closing time of clubs and women-only taxis 

  • Adopt a 0-tolerance policy towards crime

4. Future Trends in Urbanization

• The future of urbanization is shaped by ongoing trends and emerging challenges. Analyzing these trends allows for proactive planning and sustainable development.
  

Key Concepts:

• Megacities: Extremely large cities with populations exceeding 10 million people.

• Rural-Urban Continuum: The idea that rural and urban areas exist on a continuum rather than as distinct entities.

Challenges to Address:

• Overpopulation: Managing the strain on resources and infrastructure caused by rapid population growth.

• Digital Divide: Ensuring equitable access to technology and information in urban areas.

• Resilience Planning: Developing strategies to withstand and recover from natural disasters and other shocks.

Future Trends:

• Smart Urbanization: Continued integration of technology to enhance urban services and improve quality of life. 

• Climate Change Adaptation: Cities must adapt to changing climatic conditions, including rising sea levels and extreme weather events.

• Rural Revitalization: Efforts to balance urbanization by promoting development in rural areas. 

• Understanding the multifaceted nature of urban environments is essential for informed decision-making and sustainable development in an increasingly urbanized world.

Resilient City Design:

• Cities are productive, innovative and trading centres that benefit from EOS and experience rapid pop growth

  • Also manifest major inequalities and deal with air and H2O pollution, congestion and inflated land prices)

• Properly functioning transport network and energy, H2O and waste infrastructure for social mobility (reduce ecological footprint and vulnerability to pollution)

• Dense population: less CO2/capita and higher potential for public transport → savings in heating and cooling as emissions/person decrease

  • Minimize travel dist→ use less space and infrastructure → reduce urban sprawl

•  Reliable SS of clean H2O and housing at an affordable and acceptable level

  • Clean up derelict sites to create more open spaces

• Generating energy from waste (sell electricity back to urban grid): don't waste landfills

• Prepare for intensified and more frequent weather events to reduce impact and recovery cost 

  •  Safer buildings and zoning (prevent building in unsafe areas), maintenance of sea walls and make the change to adopt cleaner energy

Eco-City Design

• Eco-city: minimal environmental impact

  • Conserving non-renewables (reduce fossil fuels) and using more renewables → maintain acceptable waste production levels

  • Provide sufficient green spaces by reusing and reclaiming land

  • Encourage active involvement of the local community

• Beddington 0 Energy Development (BedZED): environmentally friendly housing development in London - lower car mileage, space-heating requirements, hot H2O consumption, mains H2O consumption and electric power

• C40: address climate change by working tgt to share technical expertise and best practice 

  • Improve public transport, make infrastructure and H2O SS more reliable and efficient and more efficient outdoor lighting (lower energy consumption), make homes and offices more energy-efficient (save $ and the environment)

• Consider social equity so that low-income communities can benefit as well

• Bolivia's cable cars (El Alto - La Paz): affordable public transport route over a winding, congested highway

• Helsinki and Hamburg: people powered mobility → provide cheap, flexible and well coordinated transport system that's competitive w/ private car ownership + increase pedestrian and cycle paths to eliminate the need for cars

  • Smartphone app: journey planner and payment mtd (limit users)

Smart Cities

• City that is performing well in the economy, environment, people, governance, mobility and living conditions → I in social, human and physical capital (incl ICT) → sustainable development and high QOL

  • Good way to manage resources avail to the city (rising pop and dwindling resources)

•  Increased reliance on availability and quality of infocom tech and social infrastructure (intelligence and skills for urban competitiveness) → high proportion of educated workers 

  • Need not be entirely new: can be readapted and upgraded from existing cities