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Chapter 10 - Alcohols

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Chapter 40 - The American People Face a New Century

40.1 - Bush Begins

George W. Bush, son of the 41st president, became the first presidential offspring since John Quincy Adams to reach the White House.

Raised in Texas, he distanced himself from his family’s New England roots, adopting the persona of a self-made Texan despite holding degrees from Yale and Harvard.

Critics mocked his privileged background, suggesting he was born into advantage but claimed personal success.

As Texas governor, he promoted bipartisanship but struggled to maintain that unity as president.

His presidency leaned toward ideological conservatism, appealing to religious traditionalists while alienating liberals.

He withdrew U.S. support from international health programs endorsing abortion and promoted faith-based social-welfare initiatives.

Bush vetoed federal funding for embryonic stem cell research, sparking ethical debates over scientific progress versus moral concerns.

The Human Genome Project’s completion in 2001 intensified bioethical debates, leading Bush to create a Council on Bioethics, though it became politically polarized and was later replaced under Obama.

Bush’s environmental policies favored corporate interests, withdrawing from the Kyoto Treaty and promoting domestic energy expansion, including drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.

Vice President Dick Cheney shaped energy policy in secretive meetings with oil industry leaders, dismissing energy conservation as insignificant.

Bush’s major fiscal policy involved substantial tax cuts in 2001 and 2003, contributing to rising federal deficits.

Economic downturns and costly military engagements turned late 1990s budget surpluses into deficits exceeding $400 billion by 2004 and nearly $460 billion by 2008, worsened by the financial crisis.

Bush falsely claimed that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction. He used this rationale to invade Iraq.

Although he entered office promising to be a uniter between the Democrats and Republicans, President Bush was a very divisive president. He strongly opposed welfare programs opposed environmentalist policies. He rejected the Kyoto Treaty, which was an international treaty aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions. He enacted large tax cuts that, along with upcoming wars, turned a federal budget surplus into a massive budget deficit.

40.2 - Terrorism Comes to America

On September 11, 2001, terrorists hijacked four planes, crashing two into New York City's World Trade Center, one into the Pentagon, and a fourth in Pennsylvania after passenger resistance.

Nearly 3,000 people were killed, including over 400 rescue workers, with victims from over 60 countries.

The attacks shattered America’s sense of national security, sparking widespread grief, patriotism, and outrage.

President Bush addressed Congress nine days later, uniting the nation and identifying Osama bin Laden and Al Qaeda as the main culprits.

Bin Laden, sheltered by Afghanistan’s Taliban regime, exploited global resentment toward U.S. policies and influence.

When the Taliban refused to hand over bin Laden, Bush launched a military campaign in Afghanistan, toppling the Taliban within three months but failing to capture bin Laden.

The U.S. adapted to “asymmetrical warfare,” focusing on counterinsurgency, intelligence gathering, local force training, and targeted strikes.

Fear of future attacks led to the rapid passage of the USA Patriot Act, expanding surveillance and detainment powers, particularly against immigrants.

In 2002, the Department of Homeland Security was created to strengthen border security and prevent future terrorist attacks.

Hundreds of immigrants were detained without formal charges, and the Bush administration pushed for military tribunals for suspected terrorists, though the Supreme Court later limited this in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld (2006).

Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF) in 2001, initially for Afghanistan but later used to justify military actions in several other countries.

Captured Taliban fighters were held at Guantánamo Bay in legal limbo, sparking debates over civil liberties and national security.

The 9/11 attacks ended nearly two centuries of U.S. homeland security, forcing a balance between protecting freedom and ensuring safety in a new era of global terrorism.

On September 11, 2001, terrorists hijacked four aircraft and crashed them into the World Trade Center Towers, the Pentagon, and rural Pennsylvania. Al Qaeda, which was based in Afghanistan and led by Osama bin Laden, was responsible for the attack.

In October 2001, Congress passed the Patriot Act, which expanded the government's ability to monitor citizens' communication, and it allowed immigrants suspected of terrorism to be deported. In 2002, Congress created the Department of Homeland Security which sought to protect the nation's borders. Hundreds of immigrants were put into jail without formal charges.

Guantanamo Detection Camp was created on the American military base in Cuba to hold captured Taliban fighters from Afghanistan.

The attacks on September 11th coincided with the beginning of an economic recession.

40.3 - Bush Takes the Offensive Against Iraq

The Bush administration quickly signaled its hard stance on Iraq, warning against continued defiance of UN weapons inspections mandated after the 1991 Persian Gulf War.

Saddam Hussein had expelled UN inspectors in 1998, leading the Clinton administration to adopt "regime change" as an official U.S. policy, though no major military action followed.

After 9/11, the Bush administration intensified its focus on Iraq, citing the new terrorist threat.

In January 2002, Bush labeled Iraq, Iran, and North Korea as an "axis of evil" threatening American security.

Saddam Hussein became the main target due to accusations of pursuing weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), oppressing his people, and supporting terrorist groups like Al Qaeda.

Unlike his father’s cautious approach in 1991, George W. Bush pushed for a preemptive war, willing to act unilaterally if necessary.

Bush and his neoconservative advisers argued that a democratic Iraq could inspire reform in the broader Middle East, though critics viewed this as unrealistic.

Secretary of State Colin Powell warned of the long-term risks of invading and occupying Iraq, famously stating, "You break it, you own it."

In October 2002, Congress authorized the use of military force against Iraq, and the UN gave Iraq a final chance to comply with disarmament, leading to renewed inspections.

Despite inspections revealing no WMDs, and the UN declining to approve force, Bush proceeded with the invasion, backed primarily by Britain.

The invasion began on March 19, 2003, and Saddam’s regime collapsed quickly, with Baghdad falling within a month.

Saddam Hussein was eventually captured in December 2003 and executed in 2006.

On May 1, 2003, Bush declared the end of major combat operations under a "Mission Accomplished" banner, though the conflict in Iraq continued.

In January 2002, Bush created the "axis of evil," which included Iraq, North Korea, and Iran.

Hussein had been harassing and dodging U.N. weapons inspectors for years. (Inspectors were supposed to be allowed in the country after the 1991 Persian Gulf War.) Bush was determined to invade Iraq and overthrow its dictator, Saddam Hussein (finish the job that his dad had started). Bush made a variety of false claims in his case for war against Iraq: Iraq had weapons of mass destruction; Iraq could be a democratic beacon for the Middle East; Iraq supported Al Qaeda.

The U.S. invaded Iraq on March 19, 2003. Britain was America's only major ally in the invasion. Hussein was quickly defeated.

On May 1, 2003, Bush made a speech in which he claimed that major combat operations in Iraq were complete.

40.4 - Owning Iraq

Post-Saddam Iraq quickly descended into chaos, contrary to neoconservative predictions of a smooth transition to democracy.

Violent clashes erupted between Iraq's two major religious groups—minority Sunni and majority Shia Muslims—especially in Baghdad.

The U.S. decision to disband the Iraqi army left Iraq without a functioning police force, worsening security and fueling violence.

Anti-American sentiment intensified after reports in 2004 revealed the torture and abuse of Iraqi prisoners by U.S. forces at Abu Ghraib prison.

Jihadist terrorists, including Al Qaeda (which had no pre-war presence in Iraq), entered the country, exploiting the chaos to promote radical Islamist agendas.

Iraq became engulfed in three overlapping conflicts: Shia-Sunni sectarian violence, insurgent attacks against U.S. forces, and jihadist terrorism.

By the end of 2006, more American soldiers had died in Iraq than in the 9/11 attacks, with over 4,400 U.S. deaths and more than 500,000 Iraqi casualties by 2017.

The U.S. began preparing for withdrawal early, ceding limited sovereignty to an interim Iraqi government in 2004.

Iraq held national elections in 2005, leading to a new constitution and a democratically elected government.

Despite elections, deep tensions persisted, with Sunnis—who lost power after Saddam’s fall—fearing repression from the Shia-led government.

Many disenfranchised Sunnis resorted to violence, including bombings and political assassinations, further destabilizing the country.

Sectarian violence spread throughout Iraq as violence erupted between Sunni and Shia Muslims. Sunnis were the minority in Iraq that had power under Saddam. The Shia majority took over after Saddam was overthrown. In retaliation for being displaced from power, many Sunnis turned to bombings and political assassinations.

In April, 2004, it was discovered that Iraqi prisoners were being tortured in Baghdad's Abu Ghraib prison.

40.5 - Reelecting George W. Bush

Early 21st-century America was deeply divided over civil liberties, cultural issues, and government policies.

Civil libertarians expressed concerns about government overreach on personal freedoms in the fight against terrorism.

Cultural tensions rose over same-sex marriage when San Francisco and Massachusetts allowed gay and lesbian couples to marry in 2004.

Affirmative action debates continued, with the Supreme Court in 2003 allowing limited preferential treatment for minority students at the University of Michigan.

George W. Bush prepared for reelection by promoting his education policy, the No Child Left Behind Act (2001), which penalized underperforming schools.

Bush appealed to cultural conservatives by opposing stem cell research and supporting a constitutional amendment to ban gay marriage.

He emphasized his role as a strong wartime leader, cautioning voters against "changing horses midstream."

Democrats nominated Massachusetts Senator John Kerry, who highlighted his progressive policies and Vietnam War record to strengthen his stance on national security.

Despite growing public doubts about the Iraq War, Bush secured reelection in 2004 with a clear and decisive victory.

Bush won the popular vote 60,639,281 to 57,355,978 and the Electoral College 286 to 252, marking his first uncontested presidential victory.

For the election of 2004, the Republicans re-nominated Bush and the Democrats selected John F. Kerry.

Bush supported the No Child Left Behind Act of 2002, which mandated sanctions against schools that failed to meet federal performance standards.

Bush supported a constitutional amendment for banning gay marriage and he opposed stem cell research.

Bush won the election of 2004.

40.6 - Bush’s Bruising Second Term

After his reelection, President George W. Bush claimed he had "political capital" to pursue an ambitious domestic agenda.

He appointed two conservative Supreme Court justices, John G. Roberts and Samuel A. Alito, Jr., following Chief Justice Rehnquist's death and Justice O’Connor’s retirement.

Bush proposed privatizing parts of Social Security, but widespread opposition, led by AARP and liberal groups, caused the plan to collapse within six months.

A proposed constitutional amendment to ban same-sex marriage also failed to gain traction.

Bush pushed for immigration reform, advocating for a guest-worker program and a path to citizenship for undocumented immigrants.

The immigration plan faced criticism from multiple sides—labeled “amnesty” by nativists, burdensome by businesses, and unfair by immigrant rights advocates—leading to its failure.

In 2005, revelations surfaced about illegal government wiretaps on American citizens, violating federal law, damaging Bush's credibility.

FEMA’s poorly managed response to Hurricane Katrina in August 2005, which caused over 1,300 deaths and $150 billion in damages, further eroded public trust in Bush’s leadership.

Bush's leadership was increasingly seen as ineffective and overwhelmed by complex issues.

In the 2006 midterm elections, Democrats regained control of both houses of Congress for the first time since 1994, with Nancy Pelosi becoming the first female Speaker of the House.

Discontent over the mishandling of the Iraq War was a major factor in the Republican defeat, as prewar claims about WMDs and ties to Al Qaeda were discredited.

By late 2005, most Americans believed the Iraq War was a mistake, leading to the resignation of Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld after the 2006 elections.

In 2007, Bush implemented a “surge” of 20,000 additional troops in Iraq, achieving limited stability but failing to shift growing public opposition to the war.

Bush appointed two new conservative justices to the Supreme Court.

In 2005, Vice President Dick Cheney's chief of staff was convicted of perjury in an investigation into who leaked the name of undercover CIA agent in retaliation against her antiwar husband.

Also in 2005, it was discovered that the government was illegally wiretapping American citizens' communications.

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) responded poorly to help New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina in 2005.

Anti-Republican sentiment helped Democrats win majorities in the House and Senate in the midterm elections of 2006.

By 2005, most of the American public opposed the war in Iraq. By 2008, Bush's approval rating was below 30%.

40.7 - The Presidential Election of 2008

The 2008 U.S. presidential election was the first in 80 years without an incumbent president or vice president running.

The Democratic nomination saw a tight race between Illinois Senator Barack Obama and New York Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton, with Obama narrowly winning.

Obama, with a diverse background and a message of “postpartisan” politics, selected Delaware Senator Joseph Biden as his running mate to bolster foreign policy credentials.

Republicans nominated Arizona Senator John McCain, a Vietnam War hero known for bipartisan efforts, who chose Alaska Governor Sarah Palin as his running mate.

Palin initially energized the conservative base but became a liability after publicized interview blunders exposed her weak understanding of key issues.

Obama impressed voters with his calm demeanor during debates and inspired many with his “Yes we can” campaign slogan.

A severe economic crisis erupted six weeks before the election, sparked by the collapse of the housing bubble and widespread defaults on subprime mortgages.

The financial crisis led to the failure of major institutions like Lehman Brothers and triggered a global credit freeze, causing stock markets to plummet.

The Bush administration responded quickly, nationalizing Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, and AIG, and creating the $700 billion Troubled Assets Relief Program (TARP) to stabilize the economy.

TARP, despite initial public outrage over its cost, eventually yielded a $15 billion profit by its conclusion in 2014.

Amid economic turmoil and a desire for change, voters elected Barack Obama as the first African American president with 53% of the popular vote and 365 Electoral College votes.

Democrats expanded their majorities in both the House and Senate.

Obama’s victory was seen as a historic milestone in American race relations but also came with the immense challenges of two ongoing wars and the worst economic crisis since the Great Depression.

Barack Obama beat Hillary Clinton to win the Democrat's presidential nomination for the election of 2008. The Republicans nominated John McCain for president and Sarah Palin for vice president. McCain had extensive experience in government, while Palin had no experience and was not politically astute.

Another recession hit the American economy in 2008. It was caused by a bursting housing bubble and the private banking system's poor lending practices. Real estate prices and the stock market plummeted. The federal government responded by taking over the country's two biggest mortgage companies, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, and by taking over the world's biggest insurance company, the American International Group (AIG). Congress also passed the Troubled Assets Relief Program (TARP) to keep the nation's banks and businesses afloat.

Obama won the election of 2008 by a large margin.

40.8 - Obama in the White House

Inspired by Barack Obama’s vision of hope, a large and energetic crowd gathered in Washington, D.C., for his inauguration.

In his inaugural address, Obama urged Americans to embrace a “new era of responsibility.”

The U.S. economy was in crisis, with home construction halting, mortgage foreclosures rising, and businesses shutting down.

The economy was losing 700,000 jobs per month, with unemployment surpassing 10%, the worst since the early 1980s.

Obama responded with bold actions in his first 100 days, including the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, a nearly $1 trillion stimulus package.

The government also bailed out General Motors and Chrysler, saving up to 3 million jobs at an eventual cost of $10 billion.

By mid-2009, the economy began recovering slowly, though unemployment remained above 9%.

The crisis was labeled the "Great Recession" instead of a depression, but its effects lingered in the American psyche.

Obama pursued health-care reform, passing the Affordable Care Act (ACA) in 2010 without Republican support.

The ACA mandated health insurance, expanded Medicaid, protected individuals with preexisting conditions, and allowed young adults to stay on their parents' plans until 26.

The ACA’s cost was estimated at $940 billion over ten years but was projected to reduce the federal deficit by over $1 trillion in twenty years.

Obama followed with financial reform, passing the 2010 Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (Dodd-Frank).

Dodd-Frank imposed new regulations on banks, investment firms, and stock markets to curb risky financial practices and protect consumers.

To jumpstart the economy, Obama supported the passage of the American Relief and Recovery Act. This was an economic stimulus bill that was comprised of tax cuts, spending for jobs programs, and funding for state and local governments.

The economy started to recover from the "Great Recession" by 2009.

Obama supported a healthcare reform bill in 2010 called the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. Most notably, this required all Americans to buy health insurance and prohibited health insurers from denying coverage to people with pre-existing conditions.

In 2010, Obama signed the Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act. This overhauled the nation's financial regulatory system.

40.9 - Back to Backlash

Obama struggled to gain political rewards for his legislative successes in a polarized era.

Critics on the left saw his economic measures as too timid, while critics on the right accused him of excessive government spending.

Expanding federal programs and rising deficits fueled fears of "big government" among many Americans.

The Tea Party movement emerged in 2009, opposing Obama’s policies and accusing him of promoting socialism and unconstitutional control.

Bankrolled by billionaire donors and corporate PACs, the Tea Party pushed the Republican Party further to the right.

The Tea Party’s influence led to the formation of the hard-right Freedom Caucus within the Republican House membership.

Republicans rejected Obama’s vision of postpartisan politics and committed to opposing his administration.

Obama successfully appointed two Supreme Court Justices: Sonia Sotomayor (first Hispanic justice) in 2009 and Elena Kagan in 2010.

Efforts like the cap-and-trade bill to combat climate change were blocked by Republican opposition.

As the Great Recession persisted, Obama’s approval ratings declined, dragging down the Democratic Party.

In the 2010 midterm elections, Republicans gained six Senate seats and 63 House seats, securing a majority in the House.

Republican victories boosted their hopes for the 2012 presidential election.

Partisan gridlock and economic struggles left many Americans disillusioned with both parties.

The "Tea Party" emerged in 2009 as a right-wing, ultra-Republican party. They vehemently opposed most of Obama's policies.

In 2010, Obama helped repeal the military's "Don't Ask Don't Tell" policy and he renewed a nuclear arms reduction treaty with Russia.

40.10 - New Directions in Foreign Policy

Obama inherited the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan and aimed for a more pragmatic foreign policy.

He appointed Hillary Clinton as secretary of state and sought to repair alliances and engage with anti-American regions.

In 2009, Obama unexpectedly received the Nobel Peace Prize for his diplomatic efforts.

He announced the end of U.S. combat operations in Iraq by summer 2010, with full withdrawal by 2011, which was successfully met despite ongoing violence.

Afghanistan posed greater challenges, with a corrupt government and growing Taliban and Al Qaeda presence in Pakistan.

In 2009, Obama ordered a surge of 30,000 troops to Afghanistan while pledging to begin withdrawals in 2011.

U.S. forces killed Osama bin Laden in Pakistan in May 2011 after a decade-long hunt.

Despite limited progress in Afghanistan, Obama reduced U.S. troop presence to 9,800 by 2016.

He expanded the use of drone strikes, sparking global criticism over targeted killings, especially of U.S. citizens without trial.

Obama banned waterboarding and other Bush-era interrogation tactics deemed as torture.

He attempted to close Guantánamo Bay, but Congress blocked his efforts, leaving 41 detainees still imprisoned by 2017.

Several detainees died in captivity, including seven apparent suicides.

President Obama won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2009.

By 2011, Obama had withdrawn all American combat troops from Iraq.

Afghan insurgents made Afghanistan very unstable and made it difficult for American troops to leave. American troops began leaving Afghanistan in 2011.

Osama bin Laden was killed by American forces in Pakistan in 2011.

40.11 - The Politics of Inequality

The 2008 financial crisis intensified debates over class inequality and the government's economic role.

The financial sector faced criticism for rising income inequality, with Wall Street’s influence overwhelming regulators.

In 2011, the Occupy Wall Street movement protested wealth disparity, coining the slogan “We Are the 99 Percent.”

Obama acknowledged inequality as “the defining issue of our time” in his 2012 State of the Union address.

Since the late 20th century, wealth concentration increased, with the top 1% controlling 20.2% of national income by 2016.

Wealth disparities were even starker: by 2016, the top 20% owned nearly 90% of the nation’s assets.

CEO-to-worker pay ratios grew from 20:1 in 1965 to 271:1 in 2016.

Poverty affected 41 million Americans in 2016, with higher rates among African Americans (22%) and Latinos (19%).

Income inequality was more pronounced in the U.S. than in many other industrialized nations.

Possible causes included Reagan- and Bush-era tax policies, globalization, automation, and the decline of unions.

High-tech industries favored educated workers, widening the gap between skilled and unskilled labor.

The rise of the financial sector and temporary, low-wage work also contributed to inequality.

Educational disparities, such as underfunded urban schools and expensive college tuition, reinforced wealth gaps.

By 2017, elite colleges had more students from the top 1% of income earners than from the bottom 40%.

The economy shifted from industrial giants like U.S. Steel and General Motors to tech firms like Apple and Google.

Apple, a dominant 21st-century company, employed only 80,000 Americans in 2016, compared to GM’s 600,000 in its peak era.

"Occupy Wall Street" began in 2011 as small demonstrations by young people who were upset about income inequality.

Income inequality grew between 1968 and 2012. It was likely caused by: increasing global competition; reduction in high-paying manufacturing jobs; growth of the financial sector; growth of part-time work; influx in low-skill immigrants.

40.12 - Battling for the White House in 2012

Economic and political inequality were central themes of the 2012 presidential race.

Obama sought reelection based on his handling of the economic crisis, the Affordable Care Act, and ending two wars.

Republicans nominated Mitt Romney and Paul Ryan, with Romney being the first Mormon presidential candidate of a major party.

Romney, a former Massachusetts governor and private equity investor, adopted a conservative stance, vowing to repeal Obama’s key policies.

Republicans accused Obama of promoting “class warfare” due to his focus on inequality.

The 2010 Supreme Court ruling in Citizens United v. FEC allowed unlimited political spending by corporations, unions, and advocacy groups.

The ruling led to the rise of super-PACs and dark money, making 2012 the most expensive election in U.S. history, exceeding $2 billion in spending.

Obama won reelection with 65.9 million popular votes and 332 electoral votes against Romney’s 60.9 million and 206 electoral votes.

Democrats retained control of the Senate, but Republicans held onto the House.

Obama’s victory was aided by shifting demographics, particularly strong Latino and multiracial support.

Despite predictions, the Obama coalition did not ensure long-term Democratic dominance, as shown in the 2016 election.

Mitt Romney was the GOP nominee in the presidential election of 2012. He promised to repeal the Affordable Care Act and the Wall Street Reform Act.

The Supreme Court ruled in 2010 in Citzens United v. Federal Election Commission that corporations, unions, and advocacy groups could not be limited in how much money they spent on political campaigns. This ruling vastly increased the amount of money spent on campaigns.

Obama won the election of 2012.

40.13 - Second-Term Stalemate

Obama hoped his reelection would ease Republican opposition, but partisan gridlock persisted.

The Freedom Caucus pushed congressional Republicans toward greater intransigence.

Republican opposition to the Affordable Care Act led to a 16-day government shutdown in October 2013.

Internal GOP divisions resulted in Speaker John Boehner's resignation in 2015, with Paul Ryan taking his place after heated debate.

Public trust in government plummeted, with Obama’s approval rating dropping to 40% and over 80% of Americans disapproving of Congress.

Obama increasingly relied on executive actions due to congressional obstruction.

He introduced Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) in 2012, protecting undocumented minors from deportation, but the Trump administration rescinded it in 2017.

Obama issued executive orders for environmental protections, including safeguarding Alaska’s Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and expanding national monuments.

He also pushed for climate change initiatives to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.

Many of Obama’s executive actions lacked statutory authority and were vulnerable to reversal by future presidents.

Despite losing the presidential election of 2012, congressional Republicans continued to oppose Obama's policies.

The GOP forced a government shutdown in 2013 when they prevented Congress from passing a budget.

Obama tried to pass the DREAM Act in 2010, but it was blocked by congressional Republicans. The bill would have given undocumented youths a path to citizenship if they had graduated from college or served in the U.S. armed forces.

40.14 - The Immigration Impasse

Immigration remained a contentious issue as foreign-born persons reached over 13% of the U.S. population in 2018, the highest level since the 1920s.

By 2017, Latinos (58 million) were the largest minority group, followed by Asians (20 million), with both groups highly concentrated in California.

Many Americans expressed concerns that immigrants harmed economic growth, took jobs, lowered wages, and strained public services.

A 2016 National Academy of Sciences study found that immigrants contributed positively to the economy, had minimal effects on wages and employment, and were net contributors to federal revenues.

Immigrants were net beneficiaries at the state level due to costs associated with education and healthcare.

Since 2009, more people had migrated from the U.S. to Mexico than vice versa, a trend driven by declining Mexican fertility rates and economic improvements.

Plans for a border wall, which emerged in the 2016 presidential campaign, appeared outdated given the declining migration from Mexico.

Anti-immigration sentiment swept over America as people were concerned that the U.S. could not absorb the influx of immigrants. Studies showed that immigrants actually took jobs that Americans didn't want. Immigrants also paid more dollars in taxes than they received in welfare.

40.15 - Civil Rights and Civil Liberties

In Shelby County v. Holder (2013), the Supreme Court struck down Section 4 of the Voting Rights Act, ending federal oversight of states with histories of racial discrimination in voting laws.

The decision led to new voting restrictions, such as strict ID requirements and limited registration periods, which critics argued disproportionately affected minority, poor, and young voters.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees same-sex couples the right to marry, marking a major legal victory for LGBTQ+ rights.

In 2013, Edward Snowden leaked 1.5 million classified documents exposing widespread NSA surveillance, including data collection from Internet companies and spying on foreign leaders.

Snowden’s revelations led to the 2015 USA Freedom Act, which curtailed some NSA surveillance powers but left many intact.

Snowden fled to Russia to avoid prosecution, sparking debates over security vs. civil liberties.

The Internet, originally developed for Cold War research, expanded rapidly, with household access jumping from 18% in 1997 to over 80% by the 2010s.

While the Internet was initially seen as a democratizing force, concerns grew over its darker effects, including privacy threats and corporate control over information.

In 2013, the Supreme Court ruled that the 1996 Defense of Marriage Act was unconstitutional. The Act had denied federal benefits to same-sex couples.

In 2013, it was revealed through government leaks that the National Security Agency (NSA) had been spying on Americans.

40.16 - An Age of Distrust

In the 2014 midterm elections, Republicans expanded their House majority and gained control of the Senate, largely due to public disillusionment rather than enthusiasm for the GOP.

While Wall Street and certain industries recovered from the Great Recession, many Americans still struggled with financial instability.

Ongoing wars in the Middle East placed continued strain on the U.S. military, fueling public frustration.

Populist movements gained traction on both the left and right, driven by the rise of Internet-based mass communication.

Social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat fragmented news consumption, reinforcing partisan divisions through targeted algorithms.

The promise of a “global village” through mass media instead led to increasing ideological isolation and tribalism.

Public trust in government and major institutions declined, with young people exhibiting the highest levels of distrust.

Political and cultural divides between red and blue America deepened, exacerbated by information overload and online polarization.

In the midterm elections of 2014, Republicans expanded their majority in the House and took control of the Senate. Republicans gains were likely due to dissatisfactions with the status quo (people wanted change).

The emergence of social platforms like Facebook led to confirmation bias in politics.

40.17 - Obama’s Troubled Last Years

Obama struggled to govern effectively in his last years due to Republican opposition and public disillusionment.

His key achievements, the Affordable Care Act and Dodd-Frank reforms, continued to face strong conservative criticism.

Racial tensions escalated with high-profile police killings of Black Americans, leading to the rise of the Black Lives Matter movement.

America’s incarceration rate remained the highest in the world, disproportionately affecting Black men due to harsh sentencing laws.

Mass shootings, including Sandy Hook and Parkland, led to calls for gun control, but no significant legislative changes occurred.

The 2011 U.S.-led intervention in Libya led to chaos, culminating in the 2012 Benghazi attack that killed the U.S. ambassador.

The Syrian civil war intensified, with Assad using chemical weapons and ISIS emerging as a brutal terrorist force.

Russia annexed Crimea in 2014 and intervened in Ukraine, challenging U.S. foreign policy under Obama.

ISIS seized territory in Iraq and Syria, committing atrocities, prompting the U.S. to reintroduce troops to the Middle East.

By 2018, ISIS had lost most of its territory, but the conflict left nearly half a million dead and millions displaced.

In 2015, the U.S. led a nuclear deal with Iran, easing sanctions in exchange for restrictions on its nuclear program, sparking controversy.

President Obama negotiated the Iran nuclear deal with Iran in 2015, which curbed Iran's development of nuclear weapons.

40.18 - The Astonishing Election of 2016

The 2016 presidential election revealed deep divisions within the U.S.

The Democratic race saw Hillary Clinton defeat Bernie Sanders, whose progressive campaign energized young voters.

The Republican nomination was won by Donald Trump, who overcame 16 rivals with a populist and controversial approach.

Trump's campaign included attacks on the Affordable Care Act, anti-immigration rhetoric, and promises of trade sanctions and infrastructure spending.

WikiLeaks released hacked Clinton campaign emails, with U.S. intelligence agencies blaming Russian interference.

Despite losing the popular vote by nearly three million, Trump won the Electoral College with narrow victories in Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and Michigan.

Clinton’s campaign struggled to present a unifying message and alienated voters with remarks about Trump supporters being a "basket of deplorables."

FBI Director James Comey’s late announcement about Clinton’s emails cast a shadow over her campaign.

Trump capitalized on rural and working-class frustrations over economic struggles, cultural changes, and perceived elite condescension.

The election highlighted a stark divide between urban, diverse Democratic voters and rural, conservative Republican voters.

Donald Trump won the republican nomination for president despite being a former Democrat, bragging about groping women, and generally disregarding facts that disagreed with his opinions.

Donald Trump (Republican) won the presidential election of 2016, defeating Hillary Clinton (Democrat). Trump lost the popular vote by 3 million votes.

Russia interfered in the 2016 election, in an attempt to help Trump.

40.19 Trump in Power

Trump’s inaugural address emphasized nationalism, protectionism, and nativism.

His early presidency was chaotic, struggling to repeal the Affordable Care Act, enact trade sanctions, fund infrastructure, or build the border wall.

Trump’s approval ratings hit record lows in his first year.

High-level turnover plagued his administration, with key officials resigning or being fired at an unprecedented rate.

Trump fired FBI Director James Comey, leading to Robert Mueller’s appointment as Special Counsel to investigate Russian election interference.

Natural disasters, including hurricanes and wildfires, devastated parts of the U.S., while the administration dismissed climate change concerns.

Trump’s frequent and controversial tweets dominated the news cycle, targeting politicians, media, and world leaders.

His administration reversed many Obama-era environmental, energy, and immigration policies, including protections for undocumented immigrants brought to the U.S. as children.

His attempted Muslim-majority country travel ban faced legal challenges before the Supreme Court approved it in late 2017.

Women’s activism surged, fueled by Trump’s presidency and the rise of the #MeToo movement.

Military officials played a stabilizing role in Trump’s administration, countering his erratic leadership style.

Trump successfully appointed conservative Justice Neil Gorsuch to the Supreme Court.

Republicans aggressively rolled back federal regulations, pleasing businesses but alarming labor unions and environmentalists.

Congress passed the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, significantly reducing corporate taxes and temporarily lowering individual tax rates.

The bill included provisions to undermine Obama’s legacy, such as repealing the ACA’s individual mandate and opening ANWR to oil drilling.

The tax bill passed without Democratic support, highlighting deep political polarization, mirroring the partisan passage of the Affordable Care Act.

Trump criticized fact-based news reporting as "fake news" if those sources reported negatively about him. Trump also made up derogatory nick-names for people who disagreed with him.

In 2017, Congress passed the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, which cut the corporate tax rate. The act also capped the mortgage interest deduction, an apparent political retribution against Democrat states. The act will likely add $1 trillion to the national debt, an about-face for Republicans who shut down the government for several weeks during the Obama administration over the rising national debt.

40.20 - The World Warily Watches Washington

Trump’s election unsettled both allies and adversaries, signaling a shift in U.S. foreign policy.

His “America First” slogan echoed isolationist sentiments from the 1930s.

Post-WWII American leadership helped maintain global stability, drive economic expansion, and support democratization.

Globalization led to growing discontent, with citizens in wealthy nations resisting economic competition, immigration, and cultural shifts.

Brexit reflected broader nationalist and populist movements rejecting international integration.

The U.S. played a key role in building global institutions like the UN, IMF, and WTO, and ensuring security in Europe and Asia.

Trump’s policies threatened to dismantle international economic and security frameworks.

He withdrew from trade agreements like NAFTA and the Trans-Pacific Partnership.

The U.S. exited the Paris Climate Accord, reducing its role in global environmental efforts.

Trump escalated tensions with North Korea, China, and Iran while moving the U.S. embassy in Israel to Jerusalem.

His approach risked isolating the U.S. and weakening its global influence at a time when international cooperation was crucial.

After World War II, the United States was a global leader, building multinational institutions like the United Nations, the World Bank, and the World Trade Organization. With an "America First" agenda, Trump sought to limit America's involvement in these institutions, putting at risk the peace and prosperity of the entire planet.

40.21 - The American Prospect

The United States remained both an old and a young nation, with a long democratic tradition and a spirit of innovation.

America pioneered mass democracy and was among the earliest industrialized nations.

Entrepreneurship, risk-taking, and technological innovation defined the nation’s identity.

American culture dominated globally, with widespread consumption of its products, entertainment, and sports.

Immigration continued to rejuvenate society, while civil rights advancements, such as same-sex marriage legalization in 2015, expanded inclusivity.

Rapid technological progress, globalization, and social change left many feeling insecure and resentful.

The nation faced ongoing challenges, including climate change, inequality, prejudice, and ethical dilemmas from scientific advancements.

The post-9/11 “forever wars” fueled fear, anxiety, and anti-Muslim sentiment.

The 2008 financial crisis highlighted the instability of free-market capitalism.

History shapes the present, requiring wisdom to determine when to embrace change and when to uphold traditions.

Americans must continuously build and refine their democracy, as emphasized by Woodrow Wilson’s belief that democratic institutions are always evolving.

Chronology

2000: George W. Bush wins presidency in Electoral College; Albert Gore takes popular vote

2001: Bush’s $1.3 trillion tax cut passes Congress Congress passes No Child Left Behind Act Terrorists attack New York City and Washington D.C. on September 11 U.S. invades Afghanistan Congress passes USA Patriot Act

2002: Bush labels Iraq, Iran, and North Korea “axis of evil” Congress authorizes the use of force against Iraq U.N. Security Council demands that Iraq comply with weapons inspections Republicans regain Senate

2003: U.S. invades Iraq Second Bush tax cut Saddam Hussien captured in Iraq Supreme Court narrowly approves affirmative action

2004: Gay marriage controversy erupts Iraqi interim government installed Bush defeats Kerry for presidency

2005: Iraq elects permanent government but quickly descends into sectarian conflict

2006: Saddam Hussein executed Democrats retake control of Congress

2007: U.S. troop surge in Iraq

2008: Barack Obama elected 44th president of the United States

2009: American Recovery and Reinvestment Act passed

2010: Patent Protections and Affordable Care Act passed Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act passed “Don't Ask, Don’t Tell” policy repealed Supreme Court decision in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission Republicans retake control of the House

2011: U.S. withdraws from Iraq U.S. begins troop withdrawal from Afghanistan U.S. forces kill Osama bin Laden First debt-ceiling crisis between President Obama and the GOP-led House

2012: Supreme Court upholds the Affordable Care Act Obama defeats Romney to win reelection

2013: Supreme Court repeals Section 4 of the Voting Rights Act Supreme Court rules the Defense of Marriage Act unconstitutional Second debt-ceiling crisis between president Obama and the GOP-led House Budget dispute causes a sixteen-day federal government shutdown Edward Snowden exposes extensive NSA spying operations

2014: Republicans win majority in Senate

2015: Court gives constitutional protection to same-sex marriage Iran nuclear deal agreed

2016: Donal J. Trump defeats Hilary Clinton for the presidency

2017: Trump signs tax reform bill into law Congress and the Department of Justice launch investigations of Russian interference in 2016 election

Chapter Review

Events to Know