Transformation of the Ottoman Empire

Decentralization
- Revolts and unrest within military corps, impacting stability.
- Increased influence of the Ulama (Islamic scholars) over societal decisions.
- Economic decline, leading to a weakened state.
- Diminished control over distant provinces, causing fragmentation.

Extension of capitulations for non-Muslim subjects in the Ottoman Empire, enhancing European control and influence.
The Industrialization Revolution served as a backdrop that altered global power dynamics.
European military superiority cast a shadow over Ottoman military capabilities.

Three pivotal occurrences signify the transition from the early modern era to the modern period in Middle Eastern history:
- The accession of Selim III as sultan of the Ottoman Empire, marked by the desire for reforms.
- The 1798 invasion of Egypt by Napoleon Bonaparte, which demonstrated European military capabilities.
- The establishment of the Qajar dynasty in Iran around 1794, signaling shifts in regional power dynamics.

The reforms initiated by Selim III were influenced by trends from the 18th century.
The swift French conquest of Egypt revealed the military weaknesses of the Ottomans in contrast to Western powers.
The Qajar rule in Iran marked the end of fragmentation following the fall of the Safavid Empire in 1722.
A shared urgency among the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and Iran to implement military reforms aligned with Western standards.

The wars and diplomacy of the French Revolution (1789-1815) accentuated the military imbalance between Europe and the Middle East.
Groups like the Saudi dynasty and Janissary corps opposed European reforms, resisting any military modernization efforts.

By the 1790s, the Ottoman Empire's population reached about 30 million amidst significant economic strain and costly wars.
Selim III ascended the throne in 1789, beginning a reign marked by ambitious reform attempts until 1807.
Selim III, at 27 years, was educated and a musician/poet, desiring to reinforce the authority of the sultanate against competing powers.

Initial military engagements with Russia and Austria initially distracted Selim but also showed the urgency for reforms.
Recognized the need to centralize power to prevent further weakness.
Resentment towards the power of viziers, prompting efforts to regain authority for the sultan.

Selim III aimed at restructuring the central government by:
- Reforming the imperial divan to require consultation on crucial decisions.
- Establishing specialized commissions and advisory councils to aid governance.
Encountered poverty and persistent economic decline as obstacles to reform implementation.

Attempted social reforms, like closing coffee shops in Istanbul, as part of a broader strategy.
Acknowledged the ineffectiveness of the Janissaries and sipahi cavalry due to outdated strategies and training.
Initiated an army reform by creating a new corps of 600 men, outfitted in European uniforms and trained in modern tactics.
Proposed to the divan that Janissaries adopt similar reforms but faced significant opposition.

Reorganized army financing and administrative duties, delegating responsibilities to increase military efficiency.
Received assistance from French revolutionary governments that provided advanced artillery and military training.

Set the stage for a new military structure, including the formation of the Nizam-I-Jedid (Army of the New Order), founded in 1792.
By 1801, the new army grew to over 9,000 men, expanding to 22,000 by 1807.
Janissaries resisted reforms and refused to work with the Nizam-I-Jedid, ultimately diminishing the latter's effectiveness in military campaigns, particularly against the Serbs and Russians in 1806 and 1807.

In 1806, faced with military defeat against Russia, exposing serious weaknesses in the Ottoman army structure.
Losses resulted in significant territorial concessions, illustrating the empire's decline.
Selim III promoted the establishment of academic institutions for engineering and military training to foster reforms.
The Imperial Navy Engineering School brought about advancements in naval architecture, leading to the launch of forty-five naval vessels by 1806, including twenty ships of the line and twenty-five frigates.

Acknowledged that military reforms had a limited scope without comprehensive political, social, and economic reforms to support them.
Initiated foreign policy improvements by establishing permanent Ottoman embassies in London, Paris, Vienna, and Berlin.
Valued reports from diplomats for understanding European conditions, contributing to gradually improving Ottoman knowledge.
Attempted to optimize governmental efficiency by reducing the number of officials and eliminating those who were ineffective.
Increased taxes, debased the coinage, seized properties, and melted down precious metals leading to inflation and economic downturn.
Ultimately, many social and economic reforms faltered due to Selim's perceived weakness and lack of resolve, leading to stagnation at the onset of Napoleon's invasion of Egypt.