D&T_Unit2_Revision
2.1 -- Resources and Reservers
As non-renewable resources run out, designers need to develop innovative solutions to meet basic human needs for energy, food and raw materials. The development of renewable and sustainable resources is one of the major challenges of the 21st century for designers.
Much of the development of new resources is the product of creating sustainable solutions to existing problems.
The legacy of the industrial revolution is now being felt as we face resource depletion. The challenge for designers is to continue to develop products that meet the needs of humans, while conserving the environment for future generations.
Renewable resource
Term: A natural resource that can replenish with the passage of time or does not abate at all
Renewability
Term: This term refers to a resource that is inexhaustible therefore can be replenished quick enough.
Renewable vs Non renewable
Non-renewable resources
Term: A natural resource that does not replenish at a sustainable rate; a source that will run out if the rate of extraction is maintained.
Reserves
Term: A natural resource that has been identified in terms of quantity and quality.
The extraction of oil has been at the centre of may issues removing around resource security and international treaties. Students need to understand the issues/impact surrounding resources security for Nations/Governments and international treaties.
The abundance of resources and raw materials in the industrial age led to the development of a throwaway society, and as resources run out, the many facets of sustainability become a more important focus for designers. The result of the throwaway society is large amounts of materials found in landfill, which can be considered as a new source to mine resources from.
The exploration of possible solutions to eliminate waste in our society has given rise to ideas developed as part of the circular economy. By redesigning products and processes, the waste from one product can become the raw material of another.
Re-use
Term: This is reusing a product in the same context or in a different context.
Recycle
Term: Recycling refers to using the materials from obsolete products to create other products.
Repair
Term: Is the reconstruction or renewal of any part of an existing structure or device.
Recondition
Term: Reconditioning is rebuilding a product so that it is in an “as new” condition, by repairing it, cleaning it, or replacing parts.
Re-engineer
Term: A re-engineered product has been significantly redesigned, with improved engineering, from its original form.
Re-engineered Dyson Vacuum Cleaner (follow Link)
From Wikipedia “Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change.[1] Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.
Landfill in Poland
From Wikipedia, Wastes are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance which is discarded after primary use, or it is worthless, defective and of no use.
Something to ponder? – This is subjective as one persons idea of waste may whereas another person may find it useful!
Dematerialization
Term: The reduction of total material and energy throughput of any product and service.
Dematerialization of a Toothbrush
Term: The processes of separating the component parts of a product to recover the parts and materials.
Term: An economy model in which resources remain in use for as long as possible, from which maximum value is extracted while in use, and the products and materials are recovered and regenerated at the end of the product life cycle.
The linear and circular models of the economy from Ellen MacArthur Foundation
Final Word: Designing out waste and designing for closed-loop recycling will be more important as resources become scarcer and waste becomes more expensive. Therefore, developing products for product recovery and dematerialization will become an essential element of innovation.
The linear and circular models of the economy from Ellen MacArthur Foundation
Final Word: Designing out waste and designing for closed-loop recycling will be more important as resources become scarcer and waste becomes more expensive. Therefore, developing products for product recovery and dematerialization will become an essential element of innovation.
Term: National and international grid systems – An electrical supply distribution network that can be national or international. International grids allow electricity generated in one country to be used in another.
Term: Energy Distribution -The method with which energy is transported from a source to where it is used.
How a grid works | Asia Pacific Power Grid |
---|---|
Italian National Grid | Power Distribution |
Term: A system that simultaneously generates heat and electricity from either the combustion of fuel, or a solar heat collector.
CHP and efficiency
Term: Individual energy generation is the ability of an individual to use devices to create small amounts of energy to run low-energy products.
House with self generation
Term: Quantification of carbon emissions – Defining numerically the carbon emissions generated by a particular product
Food Carbon Footprint | Global Carbon Footprint |
---|
Quantification
Mitigation
Term: Energy Storage –The method with which energy is stored for later use.
First Chemical Battery | Pretty small battery! |
---|
Types of Batteries
See the table below with regards to the relative cost, efficiency, environmental impact and reliability of different types of batteries.
Battery Type | Relative Cost | Efficiency | Environmental Impact | Reliability | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
High | Medium | Low | |||
Medium | High | Low | |||
High | Medium | High | |||
Low | Low | High | |||
High | High | Low |
Clean technology is found in a broad range of industries, including water, energy, manufacturing, advanced materials and transportation. As our Earth’s resources are slowly depleted, demand for energy worldwide should be on every designer’s mind when generating products, systems and services. The convergence of environmental, technological, economic and social factors will produce more energy-efficient technologies that will be less reliant on obsolete, polluting technologies.
The legislation (law) for reducing pollution often focuses on the output and, therefore, end- of-pipe technologies. By implementing ideas from the circular economy, pollution is negated and waste eliminated.
Manufacturers may react to:
Reasons for cleaning up manufacturing/industry include:
International legislation and targets are developed for reducing pollution and waste:
Term: Legislation – Laws considered collectively to address a certain topic.
Term: Incremental solutions – Products which are improved and developed over time leading to new versions and generations.
Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|
Use of existing trusted technologies. | Take too long. |
No/limited down time in production (continued profits) | Small changes may not meet the overall legislation requirements. |
Less uncertainty of success due the trusted, known technology. | Need to make small changes often. |
Can quickly respond to legislation (forthcoming or changing). | Saturated (crowded) marketplace/ competition. |
Term: Radical solutions – Where a completely new product is devised by going back to the roots of a problem and thinking about a solution in a different way.
Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|
Exploration of new technologies. | Costly (both if technology outfitting and loss of profits during down time). |
High potential for market growth. | Costly R&D, training and capital (equipment). |
Creation of new industries. | High uncertainty of success. |
Fewer competitors. | Possibility of high market resistance. |
Patening new solutions – financial and repetitional benefits. | Development unpredictable incorporating specific starts and stops. |
Enhance reputation and innovative and radical. |
|
Term: Technology that is used to reduce pollutants and waste at the end of a process.
End-Of-Pipe | End-Of-Pipe vs Clean Production |
---|---|
Trash Traps | Carbon Capture |
Term: Solutions that are implemented to deal with the whole system, rather than just components.
Clean Technology | No Environmental Protection |
---|
Articles of interest
Term: Products, services or processes that reduce waste and require the minimum amount of non-renewable resources.
“Clean technology includes recycling, renewable energy (wind power, solar power, biomass, hydropower, biofuels, etc.), information technology, green transportation, electric motors, green chemistry, lighting, greywater, and many other appliances that are now more energy efficient. It is a means to create electricity and fuels, with a smaller environmental footprint and minimise pollution. To make green buildings, transport and infrastructure both more energy efficient and environmentally benign” (wikipedia accessed Jan 19 2016).
Climate Clean Technology | Clean Technology Matrix |
---|
Examples of Clean Tech
The starting point for many green products is to improve an existing product by redesigning aspects of it to address environmental objectives. The iterative development of these products can be incremental or radical depending on how effectively new technologies can address the environmental objectives. When newer technologies are developed, the product can re-enter the development phase for further improvement.
The purpose of green design is to ensure a sustainable future for all.
Green Design – Cradle to the Grave
Term: Green design is the designing of products to have a reduced environmental impact throughout its life.
Sustainable products provide social and economic benefits while protecting public health, welfare and the environment throughout their life cycle—from the extraction of raw materials to final disposal (cradle to the grave).
Design objectives for green products fall into three categories, materials, energy and pollution/waste.
Materials
Energy
Pollution and waste
Drivers for green design include consumer pressure and legislation, among others.
Consumer pressure
Term: Collections of individuals who hold a similar viewpoint on a particular topic, for example the environment, who take action to promote positive change to meet their goals.
Legislation
Term: Laws considered collectively to address a certain topic.
Examples of legislation:
Plastic Labelling
Catalytic Converter in Cars
Term: Are laws and regulations that are based on conservation and sustainability principles, followed by designers and manufacturers when creating green products.
The environmental impact of the production, use and disposal of a product can be modified by the designer through careful consideration at the design stage.
In developing the product brief, formulating the product design specification and choosing the material and manufacturing process, the potential environmental impact of the product is assessed with the specific objective of reducing this impact and minimising it over the longer term.
Most strategies for green design often involve a focus on one or two
Coca Cola Plant Bottle
environmental objectives when designing or re-designing products. For example bioplastics in place of traditional plastics like in the PlantBottle from Coca Cola.
There are many other examples of this, such as:
Incremental:
Term: Products which are improved and developed over time leading to new versions and generations.
Radical:
Term: Where a completely new product is devised by going back to the roots of a problem and thinking about a solution in a different way.
Most strategies for green design involve focusing on one or two environmental objectives when designing or re-designing a product, for example, the use of recyclable materials.
The prevention principle
Term: The avoidance or minimization of producing waste in relation to the production, use and disposal of a product.
The precautionary principle
Term: The anticipation of potential problems in relation to the environmental impact of the production, use and disposal of a product.
Consideration of the environmental impact of any product, service or system during its life cycle should be instigated at the earliest stage of design and continue through to disposal. Designers should have a firm understanding of their responsibility to reduce the ecological impact on the planet. Eco-design concepts currently have a great influence on many aspects of design.
The smart phone is an innovative example of converging technologies that combines multiple technologies into one space-saving device. The resultant reduction of materials, and energy used in production and distribution has environmental benefits.
Eco-design
Term: A design strategy that focusses on three broad environmental categories – materials, energy, and pollution/waste.
The UN released a manual on Eco design in 1996. It outlined major considerations:
The emphasis of the guidelines will vary depending on the type of product to be designed and the target market.
Term: Cradle to Grave – A design philosophy that considers the environmental effects of a product all of the way from manufacture to disposal.
Cradle to Cradle – Circular Economy | Cradle to Grave – Linear Economy |
---|
Term: Cradle to Cradle – A design philosophy that aims to eliminate waste from the production, use and disposal of a product. It centres on products which are made to be made again.
Term: The assessment of the effect a product has on the environment (LCA) through five stages of its life: pre-production; production; distribution (including packaging); utilization; and disposal.
LCA stages:
Environmental considerations
t
The LCA matrix is a useful tool for designers of eco-products and systems.
LCA Matrix
ENVIRONMENTAL AREA: AIR POLLUTION | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ACTIVITY | RISK IMPACT RATING (CIRCLE ONE NUMBER IN EACH ROW) | |||||
Pre-production: Transport of all materials to factory | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 |
Production: Manufacturing process waste output | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 |
Distribution: Transport of product to retailers | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 |
Distribution: Manufacturing of packaging | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 |
Utilization: Use of product during working life | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 |
Disposal: Disassembly and recycling of materials | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 |
Simple example of an environmental impact assessment matrix – from the IBO
The roles and responsibilities of the designer, manufacturer and user at each stage of the product life cycle.
Pre-production | Production | Distribution | Utilization | Disposal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Designer | Low | Mid-High | Mid-High | High | High |
Manufacturer | High | High | Mid | Low | Low |
User | Low | Low | Low | High | High |
Activity: Carry out a LCA on a washing machine and refrigerator.
Term: Software that allows designers to perform Life cycle analysis (LCA) on a product and assess its environmental impact.
Eco-Designer LCA
Design for the Environment description.
There is software available, such as Autodesk Inventor, Eco-designer or Solidworks that allows designers to DfE. They
Term: Product Cycle – Also known as the product life cycle, it is a cycle that every product goes through from introduction to withdrawal or discontinuation.
Product Life Cycle (a bit dated!) | Product Life Cycle and Marketing |
---|
The First Mouse | Where is the computer mouse in he Product Life Cycle? – SMH Link to the article |
---|
Four main stages
There are four main stages of the product life cycle which are, introduction, early, mature and late.
Designing is part of the product cycle.
The role of the designer:
The role of the manufacturer
The role of the user
Term: The synergistic merging of nanotechnology, biotechnology, information and communication technologies and cognitive science.
Converging Technology | Converging Technology |
---|
Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|
|
|
2.1 -- Resources and Reservers
As non-renewable resources run out, designers need to develop innovative solutions to meet basic human needs for energy, food and raw materials. The development of renewable and sustainable resources is one of the major challenges of the 21st century for designers.
Much of the development of new resources is the product of creating sustainable solutions to existing problems.
The legacy of the industrial revolution is now being felt as we face resource depletion. The challenge for designers is to continue to develop products that meet the needs of humans, while conserving the environment for future generations.
Renewable resource
Term: A natural resource that can replenish with the passage of time or does not abate at all
Renewability
Term: This term refers to a resource that is inexhaustible therefore can be replenished quick enough.
Renewable vs Non renewable
Non-renewable resources
Term: A natural resource that does not replenish at a sustainable rate; a source that will run out if the rate of extraction is maintained.
Reserves
Term: A natural resource that has been identified in terms of quantity and quality.
The extraction of oil has been at the centre of may issues removing around resource security and international treaties. Students need to understand the issues/impact surrounding resources security for Nations/Governments and international treaties.
The abundance of resources and raw materials in the industrial age led to the development of a throwaway society, and as resources run out, the many facets of sustainability become a more important focus for designers. The result of the throwaway society is large amounts of materials found in landfill, which can be considered as a new source to mine resources from.
The exploration of possible solutions to eliminate waste in our society has given rise to ideas developed as part of the circular economy. By redesigning products and processes, the waste from one product can become the raw material of another.
Re-use
Term: This is reusing a product in the same context or in a different context.
Recycle
Term: Recycling refers to using the materials from obsolete products to create other products.
Repair
Term: Is the reconstruction or renewal of any part of an existing structure or device.
Recondition
Term: Reconditioning is rebuilding a product so that it is in an “as new” condition, by repairing it, cleaning it, or replacing parts.
Re-engineer
Term: A re-engineered product has been significantly redesigned, with improved engineering, from its original form.
Re-engineered Dyson Vacuum Cleaner (follow Link)
From Wikipedia “Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change.[1] Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.
Landfill in Poland
From Wikipedia, Wastes are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance which is discarded after primary use, or it is worthless, defective and of no use.
Something to ponder? – This is subjective as one persons idea of waste may whereas another person may find it useful!
Dematerialization
Term: The reduction of total material and energy throughput of any product and service.
Dematerialization of a Toothbrush
Term: The processes of separating the component parts of a product to recover the parts and materials.
Term: An economy model in which resources remain in use for as long as possible, from which maximum value is extracted while in use, and the products and materials are recovered and regenerated at the end of the product life cycle.
The linear and circular models of the economy from Ellen MacArthur Foundation
Final Word: Designing out waste and designing for closed-loop recycling will be more important as resources become scarcer and waste becomes more expensive. Therefore, developing products for product recovery and dematerialization will become an essential element of innovation.
The linear and circular models of the economy from Ellen MacArthur Foundation
Final Word: Designing out waste and designing for closed-loop recycling will be more important as resources become scarcer and waste becomes more expensive. Therefore, developing products for product recovery and dematerialization will become an essential element of innovation.
Term: National and international grid systems – An electrical supply distribution network that can be national or international. International grids allow electricity generated in one country to be used in another.
Term: Energy Distribution -The method with which energy is transported from a source to where it is used.
How a grid works | Asia Pacific Power Grid |
---|---|
Italian National Grid | Power Distribution |
Term: A system that simultaneously generates heat and electricity from either the combustion of fuel, or a solar heat collector.
CHP and efficiency
Term: Individual energy generation is the ability of an individual to use devices to create small amounts of energy to run low-energy products.
House with self generation
Term: Quantification of carbon emissions – Defining numerically the carbon emissions generated by a particular product
Food Carbon Footprint | Global Carbon Footprint |
---|
Quantification
Mitigation
Term: Energy Storage –The method with which energy is stored for later use.
First Chemical Battery | Pretty small battery! |
---|
Types of Batteries
See the table below with regards to the relative cost, efficiency, environmental impact and reliability of different types of batteries.
Battery Type | Relative Cost | Efficiency | Environmental Impact | Reliability | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
High | Medium | Low | |||
Medium | High | Low | |||
High | Medium | High | |||
Low | Low | High | |||
High | High | Low |
Clean technology is found in a broad range of industries, including water, energy, manufacturing, advanced materials and transportation. As our Earth’s resources are slowly depleted, demand for energy worldwide should be on every designer’s mind when generating products, systems and services. The convergence of environmental, technological, economic and social factors will produce more energy-efficient technologies that will be less reliant on obsolete, polluting technologies.
The legislation (law) for reducing pollution often focuses on the output and, therefore, end- of-pipe technologies. By implementing ideas from the circular economy, pollution is negated and waste eliminated.
Manufacturers may react to:
Reasons for cleaning up manufacturing/industry include:
International legislation and targets are developed for reducing pollution and waste:
Term: Legislation – Laws considered collectively to address a certain topic.
Term: Incremental solutions – Products which are improved and developed over time leading to new versions and generations.
Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|
Use of existing trusted technologies. | Take too long. |
No/limited down time in production (continued profits) | Small changes may not meet the overall legislation requirements. |
Less uncertainty of success due the trusted, known technology. | Need to make small changes often. |
Can quickly respond to legislation (forthcoming or changing). | Saturated (crowded) marketplace/ competition. |
Term: Radical solutions – Where a completely new product is devised by going back to the roots of a problem and thinking about a solution in a different way.
Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|
Exploration of new technologies. | Costly (both if technology outfitting and loss of profits during down time). |
High potential for market growth. | Costly R&D, training and capital (equipment). |
Creation of new industries. | High uncertainty of success. |
Fewer competitors. | Possibility of high market resistance. |
Patening new solutions – financial and repetitional benefits. | Development unpredictable incorporating specific starts and stops. |
Enhance reputation and innovative and radical. |
|
Term: Technology that is used to reduce pollutants and waste at the end of a process.
End-Of-Pipe | End-Of-Pipe vs Clean Production |
---|---|
Trash Traps | Carbon Capture |
Term: Solutions that are implemented to deal with the whole system, rather than just components.
Clean Technology | No Environmental Protection |
---|
Articles of interest
Term: Products, services or processes that reduce waste and require the minimum amount of non-renewable resources.
“Clean technology includes recycling, renewable energy (wind power, solar power, biomass, hydropower, biofuels, etc.), information technology, green transportation, electric motors, green chemistry, lighting, greywater, and many other appliances that are now more energy efficient. It is a means to create electricity and fuels, with a smaller environmental footprint and minimise pollution. To make green buildings, transport and infrastructure both more energy efficient and environmentally benign” (wikipedia accessed Jan 19 2016).
Climate Clean Technology | Clean Technology Matrix |
---|
Examples of Clean Tech
The starting point for many green products is to improve an existing product by redesigning aspects of it to address environmental objectives. The iterative development of these products can be incremental or radical depending on how effectively new technologies can address the environmental objectives. When newer technologies are developed, the product can re-enter the development phase for further improvement.
The purpose of green design is to ensure a sustainable future for all.
Green Design – Cradle to the Grave
Term: Green design is the designing of products to have a reduced environmental impact throughout its life.
Sustainable products provide social and economic benefits while protecting public health, welfare and the environment throughout their life cycle—from the extraction of raw materials to final disposal (cradle to the grave).
Design objectives for green products fall into three categories, materials, energy and pollution/waste.
Materials
Energy
Pollution and waste
Drivers for green design include consumer pressure and legislation, among others.
Consumer pressure
Term: Collections of individuals who hold a similar viewpoint on a particular topic, for example the environment, who take action to promote positive change to meet their goals.
Legislation
Term: Laws considered collectively to address a certain topic.
Examples of legislation:
Plastic Labelling
Catalytic Converter in Cars
Term: Are laws and regulations that are based on conservation and sustainability principles, followed by designers and manufacturers when creating green products.
The environmental impact of the production, use and disposal of a product can be modified by the designer through careful consideration at the design stage.
In developing the product brief, formulating the product design specification and choosing the material and manufacturing process, the potential environmental impact of the product is assessed with the specific objective of reducing this impact and minimising it over the longer term.
Most strategies for green design often involve a focus on one or two
Coca Cola Plant Bottle
environmental objectives when designing or re-designing products. For example bioplastics in place of traditional plastics like in the PlantBottle from Coca Cola.
There are many other examples of this, such as:
Incremental:
Term: Products which are improved and developed over time leading to new versions and generations.
Radical:
Term: Where a completely new product is devised by going back to the roots of a problem and thinking about a solution in a different way.
Most strategies for green design involve focusing on one or two environmental objectives when designing or re-designing a product, for example, the use of recyclable materials.
The prevention principle
Term: The avoidance or minimization of producing waste in relation to the production, use and disposal of a product.
The precautionary principle
Term: The anticipation of potential problems in relation to the environmental impact of the production, use and disposal of a product.
Consideration of the environmental impact of any product, service or system during its life cycle should be instigated at the earliest stage of design and continue through to disposal. Designers should have a firm understanding of their responsibility to reduce the ecological impact on the planet. Eco-design concepts currently have a great influence on many aspects of design.
The smart phone is an innovative example of converging technologies that combines multiple technologies into one space-saving device. The resultant reduction of materials, and energy used in production and distribution has environmental benefits.
Eco-design
Term: A design strategy that focusses on three broad environmental categories – materials, energy, and pollution/waste.
The UN released a manual on Eco design in 1996. It outlined major considerations:
The emphasis of the guidelines will vary depending on the type of product to be designed and the target market.
Term: Cradle to Grave – A design philosophy that considers the environmental effects of a product all of the way from manufacture to disposal.
Cradle to Cradle – Circular Economy | Cradle to Grave – Linear Economy |
---|
Term: Cradle to Cradle – A design philosophy that aims to eliminate waste from the production, use and disposal of a product. It centres on products which are made to be made again.
Term: The assessment of the effect a product has on the environment (LCA) through five stages of its life: pre-production; production; distribution (including packaging); utilization; and disposal.
LCA stages:
Environmental considerations
t
The LCA matrix is a useful tool for designers of eco-products and systems.
LCA Matrix
ENVIRONMENTAL AREA: AIR POLLUTION | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ACTIVITY | RISK IMPACT RATING (CIRCLE ONE NUMBER IN EACH ROW) | |||||
Pre-production: Transport of all materials to factory | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 |
Production: Manufacturing process waste output | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 |
Distribution: Transport of product to retailers | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 |
Distribution: Manufacturing of packaging | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 |
Utilization: Use of product during working life | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 |
Disposal: Disassembly and recycling of materials | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 |
Simple example of an environmental impact assessment matrix – from the IBO
The roles and responsibilities of the designer, manufacturer and user at each stage of the product life cycle.
Pre-production | Production | Distribution | Utilization | Disposal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Designer | Low | Mid-High | Mid-High | High | High |
Manufacturer | High | High | Mid | Low | Low |
User | Low | Low | Low | High | High |
Activity: Carry out a LCA on a washing machine and refrigerator.
Term: Software that allows designers to perform Life cycle analysis (LCA) on a product and assess its environmental impact.
Eco-Designer LCA
Design for the Environment description.
There is software available, such as Autodesk Inventor, Eco-designer or Solidworks that allows designers to DfE. They
Term: Product Cycle – Also known as the product life cycle, it is a cycle that every product goes through from introduction to withdrawal or discontinuation.
Product Life Cycle (a bit dated!) | Product Life Cycle and Marketing |
---|
The First Mouse | Where is the computer mouse in he Product Life Cycle? – SMH Link to the article |
---|
Four main stages
There are four main stages of the product life cycle which are, introduction, early, mature and late.
Designing is part of the product cycle.
The role of the designer:
The role of the manufacturer
The role of the user
Term: The synergistic merging of nanotechnology, biotechnology, information and communication technologies and cognitive science.
Converging Technology | Converging Technology |
---|
Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|
|
|