France, 1774-1814 - Chapter 1

The Ancient Régime: Problems and Policies of Louis XVI

• Ancient Régime

  • Absolute monarchy - the king has complete authority.

  • Louis XVI - Incompetent Bourbon Throne inheritor who failed to address critical issues.

  • Parlements: Unelected local governments.

  • Departments/localities: Local governments run by the king.

  • The Church/Clergy: The First Estate, advised the king, exempt from taxes, held significant authority under the King.

  • The Aristocracy/Nobles: The Second Estate, influenced the king, exempt from taxes, occupied government leadership positions.

  • Peasants: The Third Estate, paid taxes, lacked political authority.

Long Term Problems

• Social/hierarchy issues

  • The three estates.

• Financial and economic issues

  • Inefficient tax collection.

  • Debt from Louis XIV & Versailles.

  • Wars.

  • Bad harvests and bread riots.

• Political issues

  • Absolute rule.

  • No real parliament.

Short Term Problems

• Louis XVI didn't fix problems.

• Continued war and court spending by Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and Nobles.

• New ideas of democracy and rights from the American Revolution began spreading.

• Calling of the Estates General - appealed to the wants of the people.

• Pressures for change (social, economic, and political including the Enlightenment).

Enlightenment

• An intellectual and philosophical movement, a long-term cause of the French Revolution, challenging the authority of the societal structure.

  • Voltaire: Critical of Church influence and unfair legal system.

  • Montesquieu: Argued for an elected parliament.

  • Diderot: Critical and questioning.

  • Rousseau: Argued for more education and greater liberty.

  • Quensay: Argued for greater freedom of trade.

Social Pressures

• Regional differences.

• Population changes.

• Lack of confidence in the monarchy.

Economic Pressures

• Bad harvests.

• High prices.

• Angry peasants.

Political Pressures

• Growing ideas about the Enlightenment and lack of change by the monarchy.

The Reaction of Louis XVI to Attempts at Reform

• Louis XVI's reaction to issues:

  • Didn't know what to do.

  • Appointed finance ministers but didn't back them up.

  • Established Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot as the Controller General of Finances.

    • Plans:

      • Freeing up trade.

      • Reduce price controls.

      • End tax privileges.

    • Fired by nobles and queen.

  • 1777, Turgot was replaced as finance minister by Jacques Necker.

    • Tax collectors under government watch.

    • Compte Rendu - a publishing of the national accounts report to the King.

    • Fired because of fraud he created in the compte rendu.

  • Charles de Calonne appointed finance minister in 1783.

    • Plans:

      • Taxing the wealthy.

      • Stimulate the economy.

      • Create confidence in France and the economy to lower interest rates.

    • Proposed the meeting of the Assembly of Notables.

      • Led to revolts.

      • A group of 1st and 2nd estate members could only consult, not actually impose laws about fixing financial issues.

      • Dismissed - showed that problems were bad and weren't going to be fixed.

• Peasants' problems aren't fixed.

• Nobles didn't want to give into any reforms.

• Louis XVI reinstated Necker as finance minister.

• Estates General summoned in 1789 to discuss France's financial problems; First and Second Estates refused to accept higher taxes proposed by the Third Estate. The third estate was outvoted.

Responses to Louis XVI's Actions

E.g., Storming of the Bastille, March of the Women, Declaration of the Rights of Man, The August Decrees

• Rising tension in France

  • Poverty, increased military presence, and anger from Louis XVI's rejection of Necker

• The Estates General failure led to the creation of the National Assembly of the people of France

  • Goal to create a new Constitution

• Tennis Court Oath

  • Oath to not leave the tennis court until a new constitution for the people of France is made.

• National Assembly

  • The government would be responsible to the people and not the king as would be outlined in a new constitution

  • King Louis XVI gave way and agreed.

• Storming of the Bastille

  • Crowds gathered in Paris in support of the National Assembly; the Bastille stormed; destroyed, and the governor was killed.

  • Led to the "Great Fear"

    • Peasants rioted; Attacked the homes of noblemen, killed opposing leaders; some nobles fled abroad.

• The August Decrees

  • Law from the national assembly - aimed to abolish feudalism and noble privileges

• Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

  • Principles of a new constitution - modeled off the US bill of rights

• The March of the Women on Versailles

  • King forcibly taken from Versailles to Paris by thousands of women

  • Proved the Royal power and authority in France is now gone. The Ancient regime is no more.

  • Any new system of government and social order is now to be created

• The Situation By the end of 1789

  • Divisions over how France should be governed

  • Opposition to the revolution - (Counterrevolutionaries) from king, nobles, Church, foreign governments

Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792), The Republic (1792-1799), Napoleon's Empire (1799-1815)

• National Assembly (1789-1791)

• Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)

• National Convention (1792-1795)

• The Directory (1795-1799)

• Consulate (1799-1804)

• Napoleonic Empire (1804-1815)

Revolutionary and Counter-Revolutionary Groups: Their Views and Aims

• Revolutionary groups:

  • Jacobins: Radical

    • Most well-known and influential political club - open to all citizens.

    • Called for the execution of the king.

    • End of aristocracy and the church.

    • Responsible for the Reign of Terror.

  • Feuillants: Moderate and conservative - wanted limited rights

    • Supporters of a limited constitutional monarchy.

    • Strong opponents of the Jacobins.

    • Many executed during the Reign of Terror.

  • Girondins - Moderate Republicans - still in favor of revolution

    • A state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives, and which has an elected or nominated president rather than a monarch.

    • Not as radical as Jacobins

    • Radical Jacobin journalist Jean Paul Marat was stabbed by Charlotte Corday, a supporter of the Girondist faction seeking revenge

    • Some opposed the execution of the King and that Paris mobs are too influential.

    • Wanted more consideration of the wishes of all people in France

    • Many executed during Reign of Terror

The Aims of The Revolutionary Groups

• Fix financial issues

  • Better tax system, sell church land, new money (Assignats)

• Fix government systems

  • Elections for key local government officials

• Fix justice system

  • More fair

• Control Catholic Church political authority

  • The Civil Constitution 1790: wanted to end church power

    • Led to the pope condemning the revolution

Counter-Revolutionary Groups

• Royalists, Church/Clergy, Aristocracy, Nobles, Other nations, Emigres

  • Nobles that fled during the revolution

Aims of the Counter Revolutionaries

• Restore the Bourbon monarchy to the throne: failed

• Keep privileges

Issues

• Divisions between the royalists

  • Appease vs fight, church authority vs monarchy authority, no leadership, etc.

Changes in Government from 1790 to 1795

• Major events causing tensions

  • The Flight to Varennes

    • Royal family fled from France to meet with Antoinette's family guards - captured - King and Queen seen as traitors

  • The Champ de Mars

    • Counter-revolutionary action - National Guard killed revolting citizens after Flight to Varennes

  • Transition of the National Assembly to the Legislative Assembly

    • The 3rd estate renamed themselves the National Assembly on 17 June 1790.

    • The Legislative Assembly was the governing body of France between October 1791 and September 1792 that took the place of the National Assembly.

    • Its position was created under the Constitution of 1791, which created a constitutional monarchy with Louis XVI as the head of state.

Legislative Assembly

• A completely new group of lawmakers replaced the National Assembly with this new government.

• Younger and less cautious than National Assembly

• Involved in wars against Austria

• Established the Constitution of 1791

  • Create (legislate) laws

  • Constitutional monarchy

  • Elections

  • Separation of powers

• Ended by Jacobins and Danton - they Legislative Assembly wasn't radical enough

Economic Problems

• Bad harvests

• Trickle-down effect from aristocrats' lack of income

• War costs and debts

Foreign Threats and the Impact of War on France

• Real fear of interference of Austria and Prussia

• Declaration of Pilnitz 1791

  • Public statement of support by Prussia and Austria for Louis XVI

• War of the First Coalition

  • War between European powers against France - France lost

  • Jacobins blamed Louis XVI

• Brunswick Manifesto

  • Issued by Prussia and Austria; threatened to destroy Paris if the royal family was harmed.

  • Jacobins took Paris for themselves

Storming of the Tuileries

• Palace in Paris stormed - Royal family taken prisoner

September Massacres

• Rumors spread that imprisoned counter-revolutionary aristocrats and priests were plotting with foreign invaders. Mobs slaughtered thousands of clergy and nobles

• End of the constitutional monarchy period legislative assembly dissolved itself and created a new government body - the national convention

The National Convention 1792-1795

• New radical government lead by the Jacobins

• Wanted a true republic and not a constitutional monarchy

The Reign of Terror - Maximilien Robespierre

• Abolish the monarchy and make France a true Republic

• Louis XVI put on trial condemned to death - executed

• Executive power pass to the committee of public safety

  • Control over the military and judicial branches, took radical action against issues in France

  • Created the law of suspects - Deal with opponents in suspected opponents of the revolution - 500,000 arrested about 16,000 executed, the Queen was the first to be executed

• Replace the Roman Catholic Church with a Republic of virtue

  • Emphasized duty, the need for all citizens to help each other, and loyalty to democracy remove church authority

  • Introduced the Cult of the Supreme Being - replaced worship of the Christian God

  • Calendar changed to reflect the beginning of the revolution

• Ruthless politician - sent members of his own political club to the guillotine

• Many of his own political party feared Robespierre was to become a dictator and undo the progress made in the French Revolution

• Arrested and executed

Reaction to Robespierre and the National Convention

• Power vacuum in the government

• The white terror 1793-1794 - revenge from the reign of terror

  • Jacobin club was closed, anyone associated with the reign of terror was arrested and killed

• Ran out of food more protests and mobs attacking the National Convention

• National Convention called in troops and executed slash arrested leaders of these sans-culottes

  • Working-class radicals in Paris and other French cities. Mob from the September massacres

• Tried to instate King Louis XVIII - however he was exiled in Italy

• The constitution of 1793 was a failure - needed a new workable system of government in France

The Aims and Rule of the Directory

• Thermidorian reaction

  • The un-doing of the ideas of the radical Jacobins

• New constitution August 1795: Directory established with two councils to avoid another dictatorship; representation was from the middle class

• Follow more middle ground approach between the extremes of the terror and the failings of the old regime

Outcomes

• The Directors would not be as powerful as a monarch - avoid dictatorships (Robespierre)

• Voting would be in the hands of wealthier elements who would not threaten stability or vote for measures to benefit the masses at the expense of taxpayers

• The restriction in age would ensure that mature men would dominate and not younger more radical men

• Revert towards wealthy having power and continued economic issues

The Reputation of, and Opposition to, the Directory

• The regime did not have a firm government

• Corrupt and inefficient

• Survived because they controlled the military - essentially a military dictatorship

• Babeuf Plot

  • Plan organized to overthrow the Directory by Jacobins under Gracchus Babeuf but the plan was discovered, and he was executed

• Moderates stopped their support for the directory

• Lots of other attempted coups

  • Coup de vendemiaire

    • Attempted coup stopped by Napoleon - part of his popularity

• Fear of coups led to more corruption and canceled elections, censorship, suppression, and conscription

• Moderate and royalist leaders removed leaving radicals in charge - uneasy feelings in France

• France desired a stronger government

Directory Successes

• Winning wars in Italy, food price controls, counter-revolutionary control, elections, taxation system

Directory Problems

• Rigged/managed elections, taxes only on property owners, wars lost in Egypt, Catholic church capture in war with Italy, conscription and war meant more debt and loans

The Military Reputation and Political Ambitions of Napoleon Bonaparte

• Military leader, successful in Italy and in stopping a coup against the Directory, Jacobin

• Seen as a hero even in losses (Egypt)

• Support from Abbie Sieyes (1748-1836)

  • Priest and Politian

  • Criticized the privileges of the church and supported the third estate

  • "What is the Third Estate?" Pamphlet

  • Popular among the people and was elected as a Director and was against the corruption of the Directory

  • Helped Napoleon establish the coup to allow him to come to power in 1799 but resigned when Napoleon established himself an emperor in 1804

The Coup of 1799

• Coup against the Directory by Napoleon

• The main goal was not to establish a military dictatorship but rather remove the threat of a return to Jacobinism and strengthen executive power

• Chief plotters were Abbie Sieyes, Pierre Ducos, and fellow director Paul Barras

• Napoleon had support in the directory, but not enough to act without the threat of military action-provided by Bonaparte

• Napoleon used the army to end the Directory - Coup of 18 Brumaire;

• The Directory was replaced by the Consulate - a smaller "more efficient" body of government made up of three councils

• Napoleon was appointed first consul (most power).

Napoleon's Initiatives as First Consul

• 3 personal goals:

  • Be the ruler of France

  • End the chaos of revolutionary years

  • Provide effective government in France (maintaining the best revolutionary gains while still keeping law and order)

• Create an atmosphere of political and religious tolerance

• Used a plebiscite -popular vote system but monitored by Napoleon

• Set up efficient local government

• Careers based off talent

• Uniform Legal reform

  • Civil Code of 1804 (the Napoleonic Code)

  • Criminal Code of 1807

• Public Education (but with censorship)

• The Concordat of 1801

• Public finance

  • Reformed taxation system based of direct taxes and indirect (sales) taxes

  • Establish the Bank of France to help with debt and economy

  • New metal-based currency to avoid paper money inflation

• Other domestic reforms - rights for men

The Inauguration of the Empire

• Proclaimed himself emperor in 1804

• Emperor > king and elevated his family to royal status then to also create a dynasty

• Elected family to rule conquered territories of the French empire:

  • Louis Bonaparte: king of Holland

  • Joseph Bonaparte: king of Naples then king of Spain

  • Jerome Bonaparte: king of Westphalia in Germany

  • Napoleon's general, Murat: later king of Naples

Evaluation of Napoleon's Policies

• Less corruption and inefficiency than the directory

• Taxation was fairer

• Religious changes were popular

• Appointments made according to talent not status

• Benefits to the middle class (financiers and industrialists) - because he needed their support. Gave this class special voting rights

• Political opponents suppressed.

• Overall good

Nature and Impact of Reforms (Legal, Educational, Social and Financial)

• Civil Code 1804 (Napoleonic Code)

  • Common set of laws for empire - some of them based off revolution (land, equality, religion)

Education

• Public education for all - secondary school for boys

• Create well-trained civil servants and military officers

Social Changes

• Religious tolerance - catholic church is the primary religion of France - Concordat of 1801

• Careers based on talent

• Property security

• War spending, public works, government programs, buildings = jobs

• Strikes illegal (La Chapelier Law)

Financial/Economic

• Stable currency

• Bank of France

• Tariffs

• Industrial revolution beginning

• Tax system

• Continental System = Backfire = BAD

Napoleon's Use of Propaganda and Other Means of Control

• Napoleon used this to cement his power

• Medals to celebrate his accomplishments, peace, and art

• Napoleonic France was a "police state" - relying on a high level of surveillance, censorship, and punishment of dissent to stay in power

Censorship

• Positive to his regime - newspapers, journals, theater

Chapter 1 Summary

The revolution that broke out in France in 1789 was a result of long-term flaws in the French monarchy and French society. The nobility and higher clergy were exempt from most taxes and enjoyed a privileged position when it came to gaining positions of power and responsibility. The bulk of the population or tenant farmers would put up with a range of feudal payments to noble landlords and who had none of the tax privileges enjoyed by the privileged classes. The middle classes, growing in wealth and confidence, some other progress blocked by privileged aristocrats and resented the unequal taxation. Inspired by the ideas of the enlightenment, they saw little chance of the political reforms they were reading about. The monarchy suffered from severe financial problems brought on by war which brought it to the verge of bankruptcy. From 1787 there were bad harvests at high prices. There were demands for a body that represented France to be called to bring about reforms.

Louis agreed to summon a meeting of the estates general. Hopes for change were dashed by wrangles over voting procedures. a third state declared that it was the national assembly. Lewis took no decisive action but seemed to threaten to use force. In panic, crowds seeking arms stormed the bastille fortress in Paris. In the summer of 1789, unrest spread through the French countryside and, in a wave of enthusiasm for change, the assembly promised to end. In October hungry crowds forced the royal family in the assembly to move from Versailles to Paris in the process of drawing up a new constitution had begun. Rapid changes were made ending aristocratic titles, reorganizing local government, and bringing the church under civil control.

In the midst of this, new political ideas and discussions developed as political clubs and groups formed. Some of these are radical enough to demand an end to the monarchy. This came in 1792 after a new constitution of 1791 failed to work and the king rashly encouraged war against Austria and Prussia. In September a republic was declared. The king was executed in January of 1793.

Both internal civil war and external war led to a period of revolutionary terror in 1793 and 1794 until there was a reaction against extremism and a more moderate constitution. The regime depended on military successes and the rising general Bonaparte became a famous figure. In 1799 discontented politicians plotted a coup and enlisted Bonaparte in the plot. Bonaparte ruled France as consul, then consul for life, then emperor in 1804. as consul, Bonaparte oversaw some very important changes to France in law, education, government, finance and religion. The decision to proclaim himself emperor was to give his regime more stability and sense of permanence. However, it really relied on military successes and prestige.

The wars were fought with enormous success from 1805 to 1807. By then, napoleon dominated Europe. However, feathers in Spain and then a disastrous expedition to Russia in 1812 saw the regime start to unravel. The napoleon razor very large army to replace the half a million men loss in Russia he could not achieve victory on a large scale again. He was forced to abdicate in 1814. he returned in 1815 but was defeated by the British and Prussians at the battle of waterloo