Andrew Heywood - Politics-Macmillan International Higher Education_Red Globe Press (2019)-33-72

Chapter 1: What is Politics?

Introduction to Politics

• Definition: Politics involves activities through which people make, preserve, and amend the general rules under which they live, highlighting governance, law-making, and social order.

• Aristotle's Perspective: Aristotle described politics as ‘the master science’—the pursuit to improve lives and create a Good Society, emphasizing the importance of ethics and virtue in civic engagement.

• Nature of Political Activity: Politics is a profoundly social activity characterized by dialogue and interaction rather than individual actions. For instance, even a character like Robinson Crusoe, isolated on an island, engages in political action by making decisions that could influence future interactions with others, asserting the necessity of community in political discourse.

• Disagreement in Politics: Central to politics is disagreement about how to resolve issues like power distribution and resource allocation, which originate diverse theoretical schools of analysis including liberalism, conservatism, socialism, and feminism that offer differing perspectives on justice and rights.

Key Issues in Politics

• Defining Features: The essential characteristics that distinguish political activity include authority, power dynamics, conflict resolution, and institutional frameworks. It’s essential to understand how these features interact within societal contexts.

• Historical Perspectives: Various thinkers, from Plato through to contemporary theorists, have profoundly influenced the understanding of politics, each contributing uniquely to its conceptual evolution, ranging from utopian ideals to practical governance models.

• Academic Approaches: The methodologies and frameworks used in studying politics include qualitative and quantitative methods, comparative analysis, and case studies, which enrich the field with diverse scholarly interpretations.

• Scientific Inquiry into Politics: Can the study of politics be factual and objective? This question underscores debates about the role of concepts, models, and theories in interpreting political reality and the implications of bias and interpretation.

• Global Trends Impact: The effects of globalization significantly alter the relationship between international relations and domestic politics, as transnational issues increasingly require cooperative governance strategies and shared international norms.

Defining Politics

• General Definition: Politics involves both conflict and cooperation, reflecting the myriad of diverse opinions, needs, and interests within a society, and is influenced by cultural, social, and economic factors which shape political behavior.

• Conflict and Cooperation Explained:

  • Conflict: Represents the competition among diverse opinions and interests, which can lead to political mobilization and reform.

  • Cooperation: Involves collaborative efforts towards common goals, essential for policy making, social movements, and collective action.

• Problems in Definition:

  • Loaded Term: Politics is laden with preconceptions, often perceived negatively (e.g., manipulation, violence), which can alienate citizen participation.

  • Difficulty in Consensus: Scholars and practitioners often disagree on definitions, illustrating politics as a power exercise, governance, or resource allocation, reflecting ideological divides.

Nature of Politics as a Discipline

• Contested Concepts: Different views spur rival definitions and analytical schools, with politics observed through the lens of location (where it occurs) or as a behavioral process (how it is conducted).

• Political Activity: Traditionally, politics is viewed as state-centric—focusing on governance, authority, and policy decisions—but there is growing recognition of informal political dynamics.

• Authority: Recognized as legitimate power distinct from coercion, categorized by Max Weber into:

  • Traditional Authority: Based on historical precedent and established customs.

  • Charismatic Authority: Drawn from the leader's personality and perceived extraordinary qualities.

  • Legal-Rational Authority: Grounded in established rules and laws, symbolizing modern bureaucratic governance.

• Evolving Perspectives: The diversification of society has led to an expanded view of politics beyond state mechanisms, incorporating international relations and the significance of global governance frameworks.

Politics and Its Associations

• Negative Imagery: Politics is often viewed negatively as self-serving and corrupt, reflecting deep-seated public skepticism towards political entities and processes.

• Historical Context: Thinkers such as Samuel Johnson and Henry Adams illustrate long-standing negative views of politics, criticizing misuse of power and the ethical shortcomings of political leaders.

• Machiavellianism: The political philosophy associated with manipulation and deception contributes to the prevailing negative sentiment, suggesting a cynical view of political morality and human nature.

Theoretical Approaches in Political Study

• Political Analysis: Encompasses a spectrum from philosophical to empirical, and traditional to modern. The analysis includes:

  • Philosophy: Early political analysis intertwined with ethics, centering on normative questions about what should be done in governance.

  • Empirical Method: Focuses on descriptive accounts of political realities, derived from systematic observation and analysis of political events and behaviors.

  • Behaviourism: Attempts to apply scientific methodology to political studies, seeking objective analysis of political behavior while facing criticism for reductionist approaches.

  • Rational Choice Theory: Assesses political behavior based on self-interested actions, often met with skepticism due to assumptions about rationality in human behavior.

Feminist and Critical Perspectives

• Feminist Critique: Challenges the traditional boundaries of politics, emphasizing that personal experiences are inherently political; it highlights gender power relations and advocates for inclusivity in political discourse.

• Critical Theory: Seeks to scrutinize systemic inequalities and the presumptions underpinning mainstream political analysis, rooted in historical contexts that shape power dynamics.

The Globalization of Politics

• Shifting Divides: There is an erosion of strict divisions between domestic and international politics due to globalization; issues such as climate change, migration, and economic disruptions necessitate cooperative governance across borders.

• Transnational Challenges: The rise of cross-border issues requires interdisciplinary approaches to political study, reflecting the interdependencies characteristic of a globalized world.

Conclusion

• Complexity of Political Analysis: The continuous evolution of political theories and views underscores the necessity for diverse perspectives in understanding the multifaceted nature of politics.

• Engagement in Politics: Active citizen engagement is vital in shaping the political landscape and preserving democratic norms, highlighting the importance of participation in governance processes.

Questions for Discussion

• Why is not all social activity considered political?

• Should politics be viewed more as an arena or a process?

• How does the public/private divide affect political perceptions?

• Is compromise inherent to the essence of politics or merely a concession?

• Is it feasible to study politics objectively without bias?

Historical Perspectives on Politics

• Plato (c. 428/427–348/347 BC): Plato’s works laid the foundation of Western political philosophy, prominently illustrated in his dialogues such as "The Republic." He proposed the idea of philosopher-kings, believed to be the ideal rulers, emphasizing knowledge and wisdom over wealth and power.

• Aristotle (384–322 BC): A student of Plato, Aristotle offered a more empirical approach to political analysis. In his work "Politics," he categorized different forms of government and defined the roles of citizens, analyzing the merits and pitfalls of various political systems while stressing the importance of virtue and ethics in governance.

• Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527): Often heralded as the father of modern political science, Machiavelli's seminal work, "The Prince," explores power dynamics and the pragmatic aspects of leadership. He is known for his candid realism concerning human nature and politics, advocating for the use of cunning and deceit if necessary for statecraft.

• Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679): Hobbes is recognized for his social contract theory articulated in "Leviathan," where he posits that in the absence of a strong authority, life is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” He advocated for an absolute sovereign as a means to ensure peace and security.

• John Locke (1632–1704): Contrasting Hobbes, Locke’s theories on governance emphasized individual rights and the social contract as a mutual agreement for protecting life, liberty, and property. His work "Two Treatises of Government" influenced the development of liberal democracy.

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778): In "The Social Contract," Rousseau argued for the importance of the general will and direct democracy. He believed that citizens should actively participate in their governance, positing that sovereignty lies with the people rather than an authority.

• Max Weber (1864–1920): A sociologist and political economist, Weber contributed significantly to political thought, particularly with his theories on authority types: traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational. His analysis of bureaucracy has been essential in understanding modern government structures.

• Karl Marx (1818–1883): Marx introduced a critical framework for analyzing the political economy, focusing on class struggle and the impact of capitalism on societal structures. His works, particularly "The Communist Manifesto," critique the existing political systems and propose a collective approach to governance and economy.

• John Stuart Mill (1806–1873): A proponent of liberalism, Mill advocated for individual freedom and utilitarianism in his works, emphasizing that political institutions should promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number. His views on liberty laid important groundwork for modern democratic thought.

• Friedrich Hayek (1899–1992): Opposed to centralized control, Hayek emphasized the importance of free market economics and the dangers of government intervention. His book "The Road to Serfdom" argues that too much government can lead to tyranny, reinforcing classical liberal thought.

These thinkers have profoundly shaped the landscape of political theory, contributing diverse perspectives that continue to inform contemporary political discourse and frameworks.