3. Eisenhower Foreign Policy

Introduction

• Dwight D. Eisenhower (1952)

• Context: 1950s America, Cold War era, known as the "nifty fifties."

• Eisenhower's popularity from World War II; holds a comfortable position in office.

Political Landscape

• Eisenhower was a general, not a traditional politician; both parties wanted him.

• Chose Republican Party due to discontent with Democrats over Korean War.

• Defeated Adlai Stevenson by a significant margin (442 to 89).

• McCarthyism still present until 1954 during Truman and Eisenhower's terms.

Domestic Policy

Dynamic Conservatism

• Dominance of the New Deal programs; popular support led to their maintenance.

• Eisenhower positioned as moderate, balancing between conservative and liberal policies.

Key Domestic Initiatives

• Extended Social Security benefits.

• Minimum wage increased by $1.

• Interstate Highway System: Key infrastructure project aimed at connecting freeways and enhancing national defense preparedness; a major job creator.

• Established Department of Health, Education, and Welfare in 1953 to oversee New Deal programs.

• Attempted to balance budget; succeeded three times but ended with the highest peacetime deficit in US history due to military spending.

• Limited defense spending from 13% to 10% but faced challenges with price supports for farmers.

Labor Relations

• Growth of labor unions; AFL and CIO merged in 1955.

• Expulsion of Teamsters due to mafia connections, leading to controversies surrounding Jimmy Hoffa.

• Passage of the Landrum-Griffin Act to regulate financial practices within labor unions.

Expansion of States

• Alaska became the 49th state in September 1958, followed by Hawaii as the 50th state.

Foreign Policy: Cold War Strategy

Core Policies

• Secretary of State: John Foster Dulles; introduced Massive Retaliation: nuclear response to threats from communists.

• Brinksmanship: Approach of handling crises without backing down, accepting potential war risks.

• Arms race escalation between the US and USSR.

Military Restructuring

• Shifted focus to building nuclear arsenal; reduced conventional military size and budget.

• However, military costs soared—concerns about the practicality of massive retaliation.

Eisenhower's Farewell Address

• Warning against the military-industrial complex—concern over unchecked military power and its influence on democracy.

Global Context and Events

Vietnam

• Post World War II developments: French control leads to resistance by Ho Chi Minh.

• Dien Bien Phu: Major French defeat; US support shifted Vietnam into two countries following the Geneva Conference.

• Emergence of the Domino Theory—if one Southeast nation fell to communism, others would follow.

NATO and the Warsaw Pact

• Formation of the Warsaw Pact in response to West Germany joining NATO in 1955.

Changes in Soviet Leadership

• Stalin dies in 1953; Nikita Khrushchev rises, offering hopeful yet temporary diplomatic thaw.

• Geneva Summit in 1955 aimed for improved relations; no treaties signed but significant discussions held.

Hungarian Uprising (1956)

• Uprisings for democracy crushed by Soviet forces; US remained inactive due to Massive Retaliation policy.

Space Race and Technological Development

• Sputnik launched by Soviets—US response initiated with the establishment of NASA and increased focus on science education (NDEA).

Additional Cold War Tensions

Kitchen Debates

• Nixon vs. Khrushchev debating economic systems; a cultural moment of Cold War competition.

U-2 Incident

• US U-2 spy plane shot down over Soviet airspace; heightened tensions as Eisenhower did not apologize, affecting international diplomacy.

Middle East Policies

• CIA-backed coup in Iran (1953) established pro-US Shah.

• The Suez Crisis: US non-involvement defused potential third world conflict; Eisenhower Doctrine provided US military support to anti-communist regimes in the region.

China and Cuba

• Tensions over Chinese nationalists in Taiwan; US intervention prevented further hostilities.

• Castro's revolution in Cuba raised alarms over the threat of communism close to US shores.

• US efforts to undermine Castro's regime included financial support to governments in Latin America.

Legacy of Eisenhower

• Eisenhower remembered for moderation and cooperation with Congress.

• Significant achievements in infrastructure and domestic stability but criticized for inadequate civil rights policies.

• Successfully maintained economic growth and prosperity during his presidency.