Untitled Flashcards Set
Nature - Nurture Issue: The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture. Nature via nurture.
Natural Selection: Traits that help to survive and reproduce are chosen by nature. This has led to our current structures and behaviors.
Evolutionary Psychology: Study of evolution of behavior/mind using natural selection processes. Specifically focuses on what makes us so alike.
Behavior Genetics: Study of our differences and they weigh the effects and interplay of heredity and the environment. Effects of external influences upon us.
Mutations: Random error in gene replication that leads to change.
Environment: Every external influences upon us.
Heredity: The genes and DNA we are born with as a result of traits being passed on from parents to offspring.
Genes: Biochemical units of heredity that makes up the chromosomes. Slight variations make us unique.
Genome: Complete instructions for making an organism.
Identical (monozygotic) Twins: Twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits.
Fraternal (dizygotic) Twins: Twins that develop from separate fertilized eggs (like siblings).
Thomas Bouchard: Studied Jim Lewis and Springer at the University of Minnesota, (identical twins who were separated). Studied they had many similarities despite different environments.
Interactions: Interplay that occurs when effect of one factor (environment) depends on another (heredity). Environments trigger gene activity which results in response.
Epigenetics: Study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.
Nervous System: Body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.
Central Nervous System: Brain and spinal cord. Body's decision makers.
Peripheral Nervous System: Sensory and motor neurons responsible for gathering information and for transmitting CNS decisions to body parts.
Nerves: Bundled axons that form neural 'cables' connecting CNS with muscles/glands/sense organs.
Sensory (afferent) Neurons: Carry messages from tissue and sesnory receptors to brain and spinal cord for processing.
Motor (efferent) Neurons: Carry instructions from CNS to muscles and glands.
Interneurons: Within brain and spinal cord that communicate internally between sensory input and motor outputs.
Somatic Nervous System: enables voluntary control of skeletal muscles.
Autonomic Nervous System: Controls glands and muscles of internal organs and it operates on its own.
Sympathetic Nervous System: Arouses the body, mobilizing energy in stressful situations.
Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body, conserving it's energy.
Reflexes: Simple, automatic response to sensory stimulant. Illustrates the spinal cord's work.
Neurons: Nerve cells that send messages all over your body.
Cell Body: Largest part of a typical neuron; contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm
Dendrite: Bushy extension that receives messages and conducts impulses to cell body.
Axon: Neuron extension that passes messages through branches to neurons/muscles/glands.
Myelin Sheath: Fatty tissue layer encasing some axons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop nodes. Degradation leads to multiple sclerosis, which leads to loss of muscle control.
Glial Cells: Cells in nervous system that supports and nourishes and protects neurons. Also it plays a role in learning and thinking and participate in neuron transmission.
Action Potential: Brief electrical charge that tracels down axon
Threshold: Level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
Refractory Period: Period of inactivity after a neuron is fired.
All or None Response: Neurons reaction either fires or doesn't fire.
Synapse: Junction between axon tip and receiving end of two neurons.
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messages that cross synaptic gap and influence receiving neurons.
Reuptake: Neurotransmitters re absorption by the sending neuron.
Acetylcholine (ACh): Affects learning and memory and is between motor neurons. We would be paralyzed without it.
Dopamine: Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion. Oversupply leads to schizophrenia, undersupply leads to tumors and Parkinson's disease.
Serotonin: Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. Undersupply can result in depression. Some drugs that raise serotonin are used to treat depression.
Norepinephrine: Helps control alertness and arousal. Undersupply can depress mood.
GABA (gamma-aminubutyric acid): A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.
Glutamine: A major excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in memory. Overuspply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures.
Endorphins: Neurotransmitter that influence the perception of pain or pleasure. Oversupply with opioid drugs can suppress the body's natural endorphin supply.
Substance P: Involved in pain perception and immune response. Oversupply can lead to chronic pain.
Agonist: Bind to a receptor site to stimulate a response (temporary 'high').
Antagonist: Bind to a receptor to inhibit or block a response.
Endocrine System: Body's slow chemical communication system; set of glands that secrete hormones into bloodstream.
Hormones: Chemical messengers manufactured by endocrine glands that travel through bloodstream and affect tissues, influencing interest in sex, food, and aggression.
Adrenal Gland: Endocrine glands above kidneys that secrete hormones during stress.
Pituitary Gland: Most influential; regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
Psychoactive Drug: Chemical substance that alters perception and moods. Drug's effects can vary with user expectations.
Substance Use Disorder: Continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk.
Depressants: Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.
Tolerance: Diminishing effect with one dose of a drug, requiring larger doses to experience the same effect (neuroadaptation).
Addiction: Compulsive craving of drugs/behaviors despite consequences.
Withdrawal: Discomfort or distress following the discontinuation of addictive drugs or behavior.
Barbiturate: Drugs that depress CNS activity. Lower anxiety, lower mood, lower judgement skills.
Opioids: Depress neural activity, decrease temperature, decrease pain and anxiety. Results in extreme craving and harsh withdrawal since the brain stops producing endorphins as a result of its consumption.
Stimulants: Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. Pupils dilate, heart rate and breathing increase, heightened blood sugar levels, and decreased appetite.
Hallucinogens: psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
Near Death Experience: An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.
Theory: An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors. Basically a useful summary.
Hypothesis: Testable predictions that specify what result support theory.
Replication: Repeating the essence of a research study with different participants and in different situations to see if the previous findings persist.
Case Study: A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in natural situations without manipulating it.
Surveys: Asking a group of people questions
Sampling Bias: Flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.
Population: All those in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn.
Random Sample: Sample that fairly represents population because everyone has equal chance of inclusion.
Correlation: Measure of extent to which two variables change together, and how well either variable will predict the other.
Correlation Coefficient: Statistical index of relationship between two variables.
Experiment Group: Group exposed to treatment; one version of independent variable.
Control Group: Not exposed to treatment; serves as comparison to observe effect of independent variable.
Random Assignment: Randomly assigning people to either experimental or control group to minimize the differences between them.
Double Blind Procedure: Both participants and researchers don't know who's in experimental or control group.
Confounding Variables: Factors other than independent variables that may produce effects.
Validity: Extent to which a test measures what its supposed to.
Content Validity: Extent to which a test samples the behavior of interest.
Predictive Validity: Success with which a test predicts the behavior it's designed to predict.
Reliability: Extent to which a test yields consistent results.
Informed Consent: Ethical principal that research participants must be told enough to be able to choose if they want ot participate or not.
Debriefing: Post-experimental explanation of a study, including the purpose and the deceptions given to the participants.
Confidentiality: Hiding of a case study's identity or participants identity when publishing experimental or case study findings.
Neuroplasticity: the ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma
Biopsychosocial Approach / Levels of Analysis: an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
EEG (Electroencephalogram): An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. Real time data (temporal precision).
MEG (Magnetoencephalography): a brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity better spatial resolution than EEG (more accurate) good temporal precision
CT (computed tomography) scan: a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body. Also called CAT scan. can't show activity in real time
PET (positron emission tomography): a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.
fMRI (functional MRI): A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function. High spatial resolution
Brainstem: the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
Medulla: the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
Thalamus: the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
Reticular Formation: a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
Cerebellum: the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.
Limbic System: neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
Amygdala: A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.
Hypothalamus: A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
Hippocampus: A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
Cerebral Cortex: The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
Frontal Lobes: the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
Parietal Lobes: portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
Occipital Lobes: portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
Temporal Lobes: portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
Motor Cortex: an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
Somatosensory Cortex: area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Corpus Callosum: the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Split Brain: a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them
Consciousness: our awareness of ourselves and our environment
Hypnosis: a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
Dissociation: a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
Cognitive Neuroscience: A field that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity. combines psychology and neuroscience to understand how cognitive functions are mapped to specific brain regions.
Dual Processing: principle that info is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
Blindsight: a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
Parallel Processing: The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
Sequential Processing: the processing of one aspect of a problem at a time; used when we focus attention on new or complex tasks
Sleep: periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
Circadian Rhythm: the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
REM Sleep: Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
Alpha Waves: the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
NREM Sleep: non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep
Hypnagogic Sensation: (Transition state) As you are falling asleep, you may have a sensation of falling (where your body may suddenly jerk) or floating weightlessly.
Delta Waves: the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN): a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
Insomnia: recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
Narcolepsy: A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
Sleep Apnea: a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
Dreams: a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. can be hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, which the viewed may believe and have difficulty remembering later. during REM sleep.
REM Rebound: the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)
Sensation: the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
Sensory Receptors: neurons that respond to stimuli and trigger electrical signals
Perception: the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
Bottom-Up Processing: analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
Top-Down Processing: information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
Transductions: conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret
Psychophysics: the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
Absolute Threshold: the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
Signal Detection Theory: a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
Difference Threshold: the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time
Weber's Law: To be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage, rather than a constant amount.
Sensory Adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
Wavelength: the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission
Hue: the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth
Intensity: the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude
Cornea: The clear tissue that covers the front of the eye through which light enters. It bends the light for focus.
Pupil: the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
Iris: a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
Lens: the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
Retina: the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
Accommodation: the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
Rods: retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
Cones: retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
Optic Nerve: the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
Blind Spot: the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there
Fovea: the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
Young Helmhotlz Trichromatic Theory: the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.
Opponent Process Theory: the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
Feature Detectors: nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
Parallel Processing: the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
Audition: the sense or act of hearing
Frequency: Higher frequency relates to higher pitch. Lower frequency means lower pitch.
Pitch: a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency
Cochlea: a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
Sensorineural Hearing Loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness
Conduction Hearing Loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
Cochlear Implant: a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea. it doesn't help if you're deaf from birth.
Place Theory: in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
Frequency Theory: in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
Touch: the physical sensation of 'colliding' with another object/person. contributes to various perceptions depending on its acuteness at various spots on the skin.
Pain: an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage. indicates something's wrong.
Gate-Control Theory: the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.
Pain Circuit: sensory receptors (nociceptors) respond to potentially damaging stimuli by sending an impulse to the spinal cord, which passes the message to the brain, which interprets the signal as pain
Taste (Gustation): 5 taste receptors: bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory). the action of tasting. sweet indicates energy source. sour is potentially toxic. bitter is potentially poisonous. salty is essential to physical processes. umami is proteins to grow and repair tissue.
Smell (Olfaction): Only sense that does NOT route through the thalamus 1st. Goes to temporal lobe and amygdala. combinations of various receptor proteins help trigger different neuron pattern.
Kinesthesia: our movement sense - our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
Vestibular Sense: our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance
Sensory Interaction: the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
Selective Attention: The process of focusing on specific stimuli while ignoring others, enhancing perception of relevant information.
Inattentional Blindness: A psychological phenomenon where an individual fails to notice an unexpected stimulus in their visual field when focusing on a specific task.
Change Blindness: A failure to detect significant changes in a visual scene, often due to the limited capacity of attention.
Perceptual Set: A mental predisposition to perceive things in a certain way, influenced by expectations, experiences, and context.
Gestalt: A principle in psychology emphasizing that the whole of an experience is different from the sum of its parts, highlighting holistic perception.
Figure-Ground: The organization of visual information into objects (figures) that stand out from their background (ground).
Grouping: The perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups based on proximity, similarity, continuity, and connectedness.
Depth Perception: The ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and judge distances, allowing us to navigate our environment.
Visual Cliff: A laboratory device used to test depth perception in infants and animals by presenting a seemingly dangerous drop-off.
Binocular Cues: Depth cues that require the use of both eyes, including convergence and retinal disparity, to perceive depth and distance.
Convergence: A binocular cue for perceiving depth, based on the inward angle of the eyes as they focus on a close object.
Retinal Disparity: A binocular cue that refers to the slight difference in images received by each eye, used to gauge depth.
Monocular Cues: Depth cues that can be perceived with one eye, including relative size, interposition, and linear perspective.
Relative Clarity: A monocular cue indicating that objects that appear clearer and sharper are perceived as closer.
Relative Size: A monocular cue suggesting that larger objects are perceived as closer than smaller ones when comparing similar objects.
Texture Gradient: A monocular cue where objects farther away appear less detailed and more blurred than those that are closer.
Linear Perspective: A monocular cue where parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance, indicating depth.
Interposition: A monocular cue where one object partially obscures another, indicating that the obscured object is further away.
Stroboscopic Movement: The perception of motion resulting from a series of still images presented in rapid succession, creating the illusion of movement.
Phi Phenomenon: An optical illusion where stationary objects shown in rapid succession appear to move, often used in animations and films.
Autokinetic Effect: The perceived motion of a stationary light in a dark environment due to eye movement, creating the illusion of movement.
Perceptual Constancy: The tendency to perceive objects as unchanging despite changes in sensory input, such as size, shape, and color.
Color Constancy: A type of perceptual constancy where the perceived color of an object remains constant under varying lighting conditions.
Perceptual Adaptation: The ability of the visual system to adjust to distorted visual input, allowing for a more accurate perception over time.
Cognition: The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding, including thinking, memory, and problem-solving.
Metacognition: Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes, enabling self-regulation and evaluation of learning strategies.
Concept: A mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people, allowing for efficient organization and categorization of information.
Prototype: A mental image or best example of a category, serving as a reference point for identifying members of that category.
Schemas: Cognitive frameworks or concepts that help organize and interpret information, influencing how new information is understood.
Assimilate: The process of integrating new information into existing schemas without changing the original framework.
Accommodate: The process of altering existing schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new information that does not fit existing frameworks.
Creativity: The ability to produce original and valuable ideas or solutions through imaginative thinking and problem-solving.
Convergent Thinking: A type of thinking that focuses on finding a single, correct solution to a problem through logical reasoning.
Divergent Thinking: A type of thinking that generates multiple, creative solutions to a problem, emphasizing flexibility and originality.
Executive Functions: Higher-level cognitive processes that enable planning, decision-making, problem-solving, and self-regulation of behavior.
Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure or formula for solving a problem, often guaranteed to produce a solution if followed correctly.
Heuristic: A mental shortcut or rule of thumb used to make quick judgments and decisions, often based on past experiences.
Insight: A sudden realization or understanding of a problem's solution, often occurring after a period of contemplation.
Confirmation Bias: The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses.
Fixation: The inability to see a problem from a new perspective, often hindering problem-solving and creative thinking.
Mental Set: A tendency to approach problems using a mindset that has worked previously, which may limit the ability to find novel solutions.
Intuition: The ability to understand something immediately without the need for conscious reasoning, often based on instinct or gut feeling.
Representativeness Heuristic: A mental shortcut that involves judging the likelihood of an event based on how closely it resembles a typical case or prototype.
Availability Heuristic: A mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method, or decision.
Overconfidence: A cognitive bias where individuals overestimate their knowledge, abilities, or the accuracy of their predictions.
Belief Perseverance: The tendency to hold onto one’s beliefs even when confronted with evidence that contradicts them.
Framing: The way information is presented, which can influence decision-making and judgments by highlighting certain aspects over others.
Sunk Cost Fallacy: The inclination to continue investing in a decision based on the cumulative prior investment (time, money, resources) rather than future benefits.
Memory: The mental capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information over time.
Recall: The ability to retrieve information from memory without any cues or prompts.
Recognition: The ability to identify previously learned information when presented with it again.
Relearning: The process of learning information again that was previously learned, often more quickly than the first time.
Encode: The process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory.
Store: The retention of encoded information in the brain over time.
Retrieve: The act of accessing and bringing stored information into conscious awareness.
Parallel Processing: The ability of the brain to process multiple streams of information simultaneously.
Sensory Memory: The brief storage of sensory information (sights, sounds, etc.) immediately after it is perceived.
Short-Term Memory: A temporary storage system that holds a limited amount of information for a short duration, typically around 20-30 seconds.
Long-Term Memory: A more permanent storage system that can hold vast amounts of information for extended periods, potentially a lifetime.
Working Memory: A system that allows for the manipulation and temporary storage of information needed for complex cognitive tasks.
Central Executive: The component of working memory that manages attention and coordinates information from the phonological loop, visual-spatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.
Phonological Loop: A component of working memory responsible for verbal and auditory information processing through rehearsal.
Visual-Spatial Sketchpad: A component of working memory that processes visual and spatial information, such as images and locations.
Episodic Buffer: A component of working memory that integrates information from various sources into a cohesive memory representation.
Neurogenesis: The process of generating new neurons in the brain, which can contribute to memory and learning.
Long-Term Potentiation: A long-lasting increase in synaptic strength that is thought to be a cellular mechanism underlying learning and memory.
Explicit Memories: Memories that require conscious thought, such as facts and events (declarative memory).
Effortful Processing: The encoding of information that requires conscious attention and effort, such as studying for a test.
Automatic Processing: The unconscious encoding of information without deliberate effort, such as remembering the details of a daily routine.
Implicit Memories: Unconscious memories that influence thoughts and behaviors without conscious awareness, often involving skills and conditioning.
Iconic Memory: A type of sensory memory that holds visual information for a brief period, typically less than a second.
Echoic Memory: A type of sensory memory that retains auditory information for a few seconds after it is heard.
Chunking: A memory technique that involves grouping related information into larger, meaningful units to enhance recall.
Mnemonics: Memory aids that use associations, acronyms, or rhymes to facilitate the retrieval of information.
Method of Loci: A mnemonic technique that involves visualizing items to be remembered along a familiar spatial route or location.
Hierarchies: Organizing information into categories or levels to facilitate easier retrieval.
Spacing Effect: The phenomenon whereby distributed practice (studying over time) leads to better retention than massed practice (cramming).
Testing Effect: The enhanced ability to remember information after retrieving it from memory through testing.
Shallow Processing: A surface-level encoding of information that focuses on superficial characteristics rather than deeper meaning.
Deep Processing: An encoding strategy that involves a focus on the meaning of the information, leading to better retention.
Semantic Memory: A type of explicit memory that involves facts, concepts, and knowledge about the world.
Episodic Memory: A type of explicit memory that involves personal experiences and specific events.
Hippocampus: A brain structure involved in the formation of new explicit memories and spatial navigation.
Memory Consolidation: The process by which newly learned information is stabilized and integrated into long-term memory.
Flashbulb Memory: A vivid and detailed memory of a significant event, often tied to strong emotional reactions.
Priming: A technique in which exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another stimulus, often without conscious awareness.
Encoding Specificity Principle: The idea that memory is most effective when the context at encoding matches the context at retrieval.
Mood Congruent Memory: The tendency to recall memories that are consistent with one’s current mood or emotional state.
Serial Position Effect: The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.
Primacy Effect: The phenomenon where individuals have better recall for items presented at the beginning of a list.
Testing Effect: The improved retention of information following retrieval practice, such as testing oneself on the material.
Interleaving: A learning strategy that involves mixing different topics or subjects during study sessions to enhance learning and retention.
Maintenance Rehearsal: A technique for keeping information in short-term memory through repetition without elaboration.
Maintenance Retrieval: The process of recalling information from memory without deep processing or elaboration.
Cued Recall: A memory retrieval technique that uses specific prompts or cues to facilitate the recall of related information.
Anterograde Amnesia: A type of amnesia characterized by the inability to form new memories after the onset of the condition.
Retrograde Amnesia: A type of amnesia that affects the ability to retrieve memories formed before the onset of the condition.
Encoding Failure: The inability to process and store information effectively, leading to forgetting.
Storage Decay: The gradual loss of information over time when it is not actively rehearsed or retrieved.
Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve: A graphical representation of the rate at which information is forgotten over time, illustrating that forgetting occurs rapidly at first and then levels off.
Retrieval Failure: The inability to access information that is stored in memory, often due to a lack of retrieval cues.
Proactive Interference: A phenomenon where older memories interfere with the retrieval of newer memories.
Retroactive Interference: A phenomenon where new information interferes with the retrieval of older memories.
Repression: The unconscious blocking of unpleasant or traumatic memories from awareness.
Motivated Forgetting: A theory suggesting that individuals may forget memories that are distressing or anxiety-provoking.
Reconsolidation: The process by which memories are re-stored after being retrieved, which can alter their content or accuracy.
Misinformation Effect: The phenomenon where a person's memory of an event is altered by misleading information presented after the event.
Source Amnesia: The inability to remember the origin of a memory, leading to confusion about where or how the information was learned.
Deja Vu: A feeling of having experienced a situation before, which can result from the brain's processing of familiar and new information simultaneously.
Intelligence: The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
Charles Spearman: A psychologist who proposed that a single general intelligence (g) underlies all cognitive abilities.
General Intelligence (G): A factor that Spearman believed contributes to all intellectual abilities, reflecting broad cognitive potential.
Factor Analysis: A statistical method used to identify clusters of related abilities or skills, often applied in intelligence research.
LL Thurstone & Primary Mental Abilities: Thurstone identified seven independent abilities (e.g., verbal comprehension, numerical ability) rather than a single general intelligence.
Fluid Intelligence (Gf): The capacity to think logically and solve new problems, independent of previously acquired knowledge.
Crystallized Intelligence (Gc): Knowledge and skills acquired through experience and education, which tend to increase over time.
Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory: A model that combines fluid and crystallized intelligence with other cognitive abilities in a comprehensive framework.
Howard Gardner & Multiple Intelligences: Gardner's theory that people possess various independent intelligences, such as linguistic, spatial, and interpersonal.
Savant Syndrome: A rare condition in which a person with mental disabilities displays extraordinary abilities in a specific area.
Robert Sternberg & Triarchic Intelligence: Sternberg’s model of intelligence, comprising analytical, creative, and practical intelligences.
Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals, believed to contribute to success beyond traditional intelligence.
Emotional Intelligence: The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively.
Intelligence Test: A tool designed to measure a person's mental capabilities relative to others.
Achievement Test: A test assessing knowledge or skills that a person has learned.
Aptitude Test: A test designed to predict a person's future ability to learn new skills or perform certain tasks.
Alfred Binet: A French psychologist who created the first intelligence test to identify students needing additional academic support.
Mental Age: The level of intellectual functioning compared to the average performance of individuals in the same age group.
Stanford-Binet: An intelligence test based on Binet’s original test, adapted by Lewis Terman for use in the United States.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ): A score derived from standardized tests, intended to measure an individual's cognitive abilities.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): A widely used intelligence test that includes both verbal and performance subtests.
Psychometric: The field of study concerned with the theory and technique of measuring psychological attributes, such as intelligence.
Standardization: The process of establishing norms and consistent procedures for administering a test.
Normal Curve: A bell-shaped curve that represents the distribution of scores, with most falling near the average.
Flynn Effect: The observed increase in average IQ scores over generations, likely due to various environmental factors.
Reliability: The consistency of a test in measuring what it aims to measure over time.
Internal Reliability examines if all parts of a test contribute equally to measuring the same concept. For example, do all questions in an intelligence test align with the construct of intelligence being measured?
External Reliability assesses if a test provides consistent results over repeated applications. For instance, if a person takes the test today and again in two weeks, the scores should be similar if intelligence has not changed.
Test-Retest Reliability specifically measures the stability of test results over time. A test has strong test-retest reliability if individuals’ scores remain consistent across multiple administrations.
Inter-Rater Reliability evaluates the agreement among different evaluators or scorers. This is especially important for subjective assessments, such as interpreting open-ended responses in intelligence tests. High inter-rater reliability means scorers largely agree on the evaluation of responses.
Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.
Content Validity: The degree to which a test samples the behavior or knowledge it is supposed to assess.
Predictive Validity: The extent to which a test accurately predicts future performance or outcomes.
Cross-Sectional Study: A study that compares individuals of different ages at one point in time.
Longitudinal Study: A study that follows the same individuals over a period to observe changes over time.
Cohort: A group of individuals who share a common characteristic, often age, studied over time.
Growth Mindset: The belief that abilities, including intelligence, can develop through effort and learning.
Fixed Mindset: The belief that abilities, including intelligence, are static and unchangeable.
Carol Dweck: A psychologist known for her research on growth and fixed mindsets and their impact on motivation and achievement.
Gender-Related Similarities & Differences: Research on cognitive abilities has found more similarities than differences between genders, but some small differences do exist. For example, females tend to perform slightly better on tasks involving verbal fluency, reading comprehension, and some fine motor skills, while males tend to perform better on certain spatial tasks, like mental rotation, and on some math-related tasks, though these differences often decrease with age and education. It’s important to consider that social expectations, educational experiences, and cultural biases contribute significantly to these observed differences. Many psychologists stress that individual abilities and interests are far more variable within each gender than between genders, meaning these trends should not be used to predict an individual’s intelligence or potential.
Racial & Ethnic Similarities & Differences: Differences in average intelligence test scores among racial and ethnic groups have been documented, but research attributes these gaps primarily to environmental, socio-economic, and educational disparities rather than inherent racial differences. Factors such as access to quality education, healthcare, nutrition, and exposure to environmental stressors significantly influence cognitive development and test performance. Additionally, the historical and systemic impacts of discrimination can limit resources and opportunities, impacting achievement. Psychologists emphasize that intelligence is shaped by a complex interplay of factors and caution against interpreting group averages as reflective of an individual’s potential or ability, as intelligence is highly individualized.
Stereotype Threat: The anxiety or concern that one might confirm a negative stereotype about their group, which can affect performance.
Prenatal and Infant Development
Zygotes: A fertilized egg, representing the first stage of human development, which undergoes rapid cell division.
Embryo: The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization to the end of the eighth week.
Fetus: The developing human from 9 weeks after conception to birth.
Teratogens: Harmful agents, such as chemicals or viruses, that can cause damage to the developing embryo or fetus.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by heavy drinking during pregnancy.
Habituation: Decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated exposure, used to study infant cognition.
Maturation: Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.
Critical Period: A specific time in development when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences is necessary for normal development.
Motor Development: The progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities.
Brain Maturation: The growth and development of the brain, allowing for increasingly complex behaviors and skills.
Infantile Amnesia: The inability to recall memories from before about age 3 due to immature brain development.
Adolescence: The transitional period between childhood and adulthood, characterized by physical and psychological changes.
Puberty: The period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproduction.
Menopause: The time in a woman’s life when menstrual cycles end, marking the cessation of reproductive capability.
Biological Sex: The physical characteristics (e.g., chromosomes, hormones) that define male and female.
Gender: The socially constructed roles and characteristics associated with being male, female, or nonbinary.
Intersex: A condition in which an individual is born with atypical combinations of male and female physical characteristics.
Aggression: Behavior intended to harm another, physically or verbally.
Relational Aggression: Behavior intended to harm a person's relationships or social standing.
Gender Role: A set of expected behaviors for males or females defined by society.
Sexual Aggression: Any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is intended to harm or dominate another.
Gender Identity: A person’s sense of being male, female, or another gender.
Social Learning Theory: The theory that gender roles are learned through reinforcement, punishment, and observation.
Gender Typing: The acquisition of traditional male or female roles.
Gender Schema: A framework for understanding gendered behavior and expectations.
Transgender: Describing people whose gender identity differs from their biological sex.
X Chromosome: The sex chromosome found in both males and females; females have two, males have one.
Y Chromosome: The sex chromosome found only in males, paired with an X chromosome from the mother.
Testosterone: The most important male sex hormone, influencing male sex organ development and traits.
Estrogen: A primary female sex hormone, important for reproductive system development and regulation.
Primary Sex Characteristics: Body structures (e.g., ovaries, testes) that make reproduction possible.
Secondary Sex Characteristics: Non-reproductive traits (e.g., breasts, body hair) that develop during puberty.
Spermarche: The first ejaculation, marking the start of male reproductive capacity.
Menarche: The first menstrual period, marking the start of female reproductive capacity.
Sexuality: A person’s sexual orientation, preferences, and identity.
Asexual: A lack of sexual attraction to others.
External Stimuli: Visual or physical environmental cues that influence sexual arousal.
Social Scripts: Societal norms and expectations about how to behave in certain sexual or romantic situations.
Sexual Orientation: A person’s pattern of romantic or sexual attraction to others.
Trait & Brain Differences (Simon LeVay): Observed neural differences in brain regions linked to sexual orientation.
Genetic & Prenatal Influences: Factors, such as genes and hormones during pregnancy, that may influence sexual orientation.
Cognitions: Mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding.
Schema: A mental framework for organizing and interpreting information.
Assimilation: Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.
Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas to include new information.
Jean Piaget: A developmental psychologist who proposed stages of cognitive development.
Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years, when infants know the world through sensory impressions and motor activities.
Object Permanence: Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.
Preoperational Stage: Ages 2–7, characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism but lacking logical reasoning.
Conservation: Understanding that properties like mass, volume, and number remain constant despite changes in form.
Egocentrism: Difficulty taking another’s point of view, typical in the preoperational stage.
Concrete Operational Stage: Ages 7–11, marked by logical thinking about concrete events and mastery of conservation.
Formal Operational Stage: Ages 12 and up, when abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking develop.
Lev Vygotsky: A developmental psychologist who emphasized the role of social interaction in learning.
Scaffolding: Providing support for learning that is gradually removed as independence increases.
Zone of Proximal Development: The range of tasks a child can perform with guidance but not yet independently.
Theory of Mind: Understanding that others have their own thoughts, feelings, and perspectives.
Lawrence Kohlberg & Moral Reasoning: A theorist who identified stages of moral reasoning.
Preconventional Morality: Focus on self-interest and avoiding punishment.
Conventional Morality: Upholding laws and social rules for approval or order.
Postconventional Morality: Guided by self-defined ethical principles.
Phoneme: The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.
Morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning in a language, such as a word or a prefix.
Grammar: The set of rules that enables people to communicate, including syntax (sentence structure) and semantics (meaning).
Universal Grammar: Noam Chomsky's theory that humans are born with an innate ability to understand the structure of language.
Receptive Language: The ability to comprehend speech and understand language.
Productive Language: The ability to produce words and express oneself through language.
Babbling Stage: The stage in infancy, around 4 months, when babies spontaneously produce nonsensical, repetitive sounds.
One-Word Stage: The stage, around 12 months, when a child speaks mostly in single words.
Two-Word Stage: The stage, around 24 months, when a child starts combining two words to form simple sentences.
Telegraphic Speech: Early speech stage where a child uses mostly nouns and verbs in a grammatically simplistic way (e.g., "Want cookie").
Aphasia: A language impairment caused by brain damage, affecting speaking, understanding, or both.
Broca’s Area: A region in the frontal lobe of the brain responsible for speech production.
Wernicke’s Area: A region in the temporal lobe of the brain involved in language comprehension.
Linguistic Determinism: The hypothesis that language determines the way we think.
Linguistic Relativism: The idea that language influences thought but does not entirely determine it.
Ecological Systems Theory: Bronfenbrenner's theory emphasizing how different environmental systems interact to influence human development.
Stranger Anxiety: The fear of strangers that infants commonly display beginning around 8 months of age.
Harlow’s Monkey Experiment: A study that demonstrated the importance of physical contact and comfort in attachment using baby monkeys and surrogate mothers.
Attachment: A deep emotional bond that connects one person to another, especially between a child and caregiver.
Imprinting: A process in which certain animals form strong attachments during a critical early period.
Secure Attachment: A healthy attachment style where a child feels safe and confident exploring when the caregiver is present.
Insecure Attachment: An attachment style where a child shows anxiety or avoidance in their relationship with the caregiver.
Strange Situation: Mary Ainsworth’s experimental procedure to assess attachment styles in infants by observing their reactions to separations and reunions with their caregiver.
Temperament: An individual's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, which is thought to have a biological basis.
Basic Trust: Erik Erikson's idea that securely attached infants develop a sense of the world as predictable and trustworthy.
Self-Concept: A sense of one’s identity and personal worth, typically developing by age 12.
Parenting Styles:
Authoritarian: Strict rules, high expectations, and little warmth.
Permissive: Few demands or rules; highly nurturing.
Neglectful: Minimal involvement or responsiveness to a child’s needs.
Authoritative: High expectations balanced with warmth and responsiveness.
Mark Rosenzweig: A psychologist who studied the effects of experience on brain development, showing the importance of an enriched environment.
Enriched vs. Impoverished Environment: An enriched environment with stimulation promotes brain development, while an impoverished one hinders it.
Peer Influence: The impact that peers have on an individual’s attitudes, values, and behavior.
Identity: One’s sense of self, including personal values, beliefs, and goals.
Social Identity: The “we” aspect of self-concept derived from group memberships.
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development: A theory outlining eight stages of psychosocial challenges individuals face across the lifespan (e.g., trust vs. mistrust, identity vs. role confusion).
Intimacy: Erikson’s stage in early adulthood focused on forming close, meaningful relationships.
Emerging Adulthood: A period between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood characterized by exploration and instability.
Social Clock: The culturally preferred timing of major life events, such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.
Death Deferral Theory: The hypothesis that people may unconsciously postpone dying until a significant event or milestone has passed.
Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.
Habituation: Decreased response to a repeated stimulus over time.
Associative Learning: Learning that involves forming associations between stimuli or behaviors.
Stimulus: An event or object that elicits a response.
Respondent Behavior: Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus.
Operant Behavior: Behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences.
Cognitive Learning: Learning that involves understanding, knowing, or applying knowledge, not just a change in behavior.
Classical Conditioning: A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.
Behaviorism: A school of psychology that focuses on observable behavior and its relationship with the environment.
John Watson: Psychologist known for founding behaviorism and conducting the "Little Albert" experiment.
Ivan Pavlov: Psychologist known for his work on classical conditioning with dogs.
Neutral Stimuli: A stimulus that initially does not trigger a response but becomes a conditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned Response: A natural, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned Stimulus: A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning.
Conditioned Response: A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus: A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response.
Acquisition: The initial stage of learning in which a response is established.
Higher-Order Conditioning: A process where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a new conditioned stimulus.
Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
Recovery: The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of extinction.
Spontaneous Recovery: The sudden reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction.
Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond to only the conditioned stimulus.
Little Albert Experiment: John Watson's experiment demonstrating classical conditioning by associating a white rat with a loud noise to elicit fear.
Preparedness: The innate predisposition to learn certain associations more easily than others.
John Garcia: Psychologist who demonstrated the role of biological predispositions in conditioning, particularly in taste aversion.
Taste Aversion: A learned avoidance of a particular taste associated with nausea or discomfort.
Operant Conditioning: A learning process where behavior is influenced by consequences such as reinforcement or punishment.
Law of Effect: Edward Thorndike's principle stating that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated.
Operant Chamber: A device used to study operant conditioning, often called a Skinner box.
Reinforcement: The process of strengthening a behavior by providing a consequence that encourages its occurrence.
Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.
Discriminative Stimulus: A stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement for a specific behavior.
Positive Reinforcement: Strengthening a behavior by providing a pleasant consequence after it occurs.
Negative Reinforcement: Strengthening a behavior by removing an unpleasant consequence.
Primary Reinforcers: Stimuli that satisfy basic biological needs, such as food or water.
Conditioned Reinforcers: Stimuli that acquire reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers.
Reinforcement Schedules: The frequency and timing of reinforcement.
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after every correct response.
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcement is provided only after some responses, not every time.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is given after a set number of responses.
Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses.
Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is given after a set period of time.
Variable-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable period of time.
Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring.
Positive Punishment: Adding an undesirable stimulus to reduce a behavior.
Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to reduce a behavior.
B.F. Skinner: Psychologist known for his work on operant conditioning and the development of the operant chamber.
Biofeedback: A technique that teaches individuals to control physiological processes by providing real-time feedback.
Instinctive Drift: The tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behaviors, making it difficult to condition certain behaviors.
Cognitive Map: A mental representation of the layout of one's environment.
Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not immediately demonstrated in behavior.
Insight Learning: Sudden realization of a problem’s solution without trial and error.
Albert Bandura: Psychologist known for his work on observational learning and social cognitive theory.
Observational Learning: Learning by observing others and imitating their behavior.
Modeling: The process of demonstrating behavior for others to imitate.
Mirror Neurons: Neurons that fire both when performing an action and when observing someone else perform that action.
Prosocial Behaviors: Positive, helping behaviors that benefit others.
Antisocial Behaviors: Negative, harmful behaviors that violate social norms or harm others.