The late 19th century witnessed the emergence of a mass society.
Lower classes began demanding government attention for better living conditions.
Governments focused on improving public health, sanitation, education, and women’s rights.
Why did European cities grow so quickly in the 19th century?
Migration from rural areas to cities due to scarce job opportunities highlighted by industrialization.
Urban population statistics:
1850s: 40% in England, 15% in France, 10% in Prussia, 5% in Russia.
By 1890: 60% in England, 25% in France, 30% in Prussia, 10% in Russia.
London’s population grew from 960,000 to 6,500,000 between 1800-1900.
1840s reforms initiated to address Filthy living conditions due to deadly epidemics like cholera.
Creation of boards of health for inspecting housing and enforcing regulations.
Introduction of internal drainage systems and running water in buildings.
Construction of dams, reservoirs, aqueducts, and underground sewage systems significantly advanced public health.
Notable campaigns, such as Frankfurt's slogan emphasizing efficient sewage disposal.
How did class divisions in Europe change during the 19th century?
Post-1871, higher standard of living but still significant poverty:
Wealthy elite (5% of the population controlling 30-40% of wealth).
Comprised of successful industrialists, bankers, and aristocrats.
Middle-class groups included:
Upper-middle class: professionals like lawyers and doctors.
Lower-middle class: small shopkeepers and prosperous farmers.
White-collar workers: such as clerks and secretaries, bridged the gap between lower-middle class and lower classes.
Emphasis on hard work and outward appearances among the middle class, illustrated by popular etiquette manuals.
Constituted almost 80% of the European population and included skilled artisans, semi-skilled workers, and unskilled laborers.
Urban workers saw improvements post-1870 through various reforms and raised wages.
Strikes led to the 10-hour workday and Saturday afternoons off.
How did the Second Industrial Revolution influence women's roles in society?
Traditional roles limited women to household responsibilities; however, new job opportunities emerged due to labor shortages in white-collar jobs.
Women began working as clerks, typists, and in government services, mostly from the working class.
Men were primary wage earners, with women managing the home. Family size declined due to improved economic conditions and birth control.
Working-class women contributed significantly to household incomes, with many children finding work by age 9.
By early 20th century, some working-class women began to mirror middle-class domestic roles as higher wages became standard.
Modern feminism began during the Enlightenment, initially focusing on property rights.
The fight for women’s suffrage gained momentum in the 1840s and 1850s, notably in Britain.
The Women's Social and Political Union adopted aggressive strategies to demand voting rights, leading to significant public and media attention.
How did society change as a result of urbanization and industrialization?
Mass society led to a push for universal education, predominantly funded by governments between 1870 and 1914.
Industrialization necessitated skilled labor, prompting governments to educate voters and instill patriotism.
Most new teachers were women, as teaching was seen as a natural role for them.
The Second Industrial Revolution changed perceptions around leisure, promoting activities that entertained and distracted from work life.
Increased leisure time due to new work structures led to the emergence of amusement parks, dance halls, and organized sports.
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