Untitled Flashcards Set

1. How do psychologists define memory?
 Memory is how we take in, store, and remember information like facts, experiences, or skills.

 2. What are the three steps in memory (in order)?
 The steps are encoding (taking in info), storage (saving info), and retrieval (getting info back).

 3. What does it mean to encode information in memory?
 Encoding means turning information into a form your brain can understand and remember, like reading a word and remembering what it means.

 4. Compare and contrast selective attention, divided attention, and sustained attention. Provide examples of each.
 Selective attention is focusing on one thing, like listening to a teacher. Divided attention is trying to focus on many things at once, like texting and watching TV. Sustained attention is staying focused for a long time, like reading for 30 minutes straight.

 5. What are the different levels of processing and how do they affect memory?
 Shallow processing focuses on how something looks or sounds. Deep processing focuses on the meaning. Deep processing helps you remember things better.

 6. What are examples of elaboration?
 Elaboration is adding meaning to info. For example, linking a new word to a memory or using it in a sentence.

 7. What is storage? What does it mean to store information in memory?
 Storage means keeping information in your brain so you can use it later.

 8. Describe the Atkinson-Shiffrin theory.
 It says memory has three stages: sensory memory (very short), short-term memory (a few seconds), and long-term memory (can last forever).

 8a. What is sensory memory and what does it accomplish?
 Sensory memory holds information from your senses for a short time, like seeing a flash of light.

 What is the difference between echoic memory and iconic memory?
 Echoic memory is for sounds and lasts a few seconds. Iconic memory is for visuals and lasts about half a second.

 8b. What is short-term memory and what does it accomplish?
 Short-term memory holds small amounts of info for about 30 seconds, like remembering a phone number.

 How does chunking increase the capacity of short-term memory?
 Chunking puts info into groups to remember more, like turning 123456 into 123-456.

 What is working memory? Identify and describe the three components of working memory.
 Working memory helps you use and hold info at the same time. The three parts are: phonological loop (sounds), visuospatial sketchpad (images), and central executive (focus and control).

 8c. What is long-term memory and what does it accomplish?
 Long-term memory holds info for a long time, like your name or favorite song.

 Define explicit memory. What is the difference between semantic memory and episodic memory? Provide examples of each.
 Explicit memory is info you can say. Semantic memory is facts (like "the sky is blue"). Episodic memory is events (like your last birthday).

 Define implicit memory. Define and provide examples of procedural memory and priming.
 Implicit memory is info you remember without trying. Procedural memory is skills, like riding a bike. Priming is when something you saw earlier helps you remember, like seeing the word "yellow" helps you think of "banana."

 9. What is retrieval? What does it mean to retrieve information from memory?
 Retrieval means getting info out of memory, like remembering the answer to a test question.

 9a. What is the serial position effect? What does the primacy effect and recency effect tell us about how the location of items affects memory?
 We remember the first (primacy) and last (recency) things in a list best. The middle is harder to recall.

 9b. Compare and contrast recall and recognition.
 Recall means bringing up info on your own (like an essay). Recognition is seeing the right answer and picking it (like multiple choice).

 9c. What is the encoding specificity principle?
 You remember things better if you're in the same place or mood as when you learned it.

 9d. Provide an example of context dependent memory.
 If you learn something in class, you remember it better when you're in class again.

 9e. What is an autobiographical memory? Provide an example.
 It's a memory from your life, like your first day at school.

 9f. What is a flashbulb memory? Provide an example.
 A clear, emotional memory of a big event, like remembering where you were when something shocking happened.

 9g. What is motivated forgetting? Provide an example.
 Forgetting something on purpose, like trying to forget a bad breakup.

 10. What are causes of forgetting?
 Forgetting can happen because of poor encoding, interference, decay, or not being able to get the memory back.

 10a. Describe Hermann Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve.
 Most forgetting happens fast, then slows down.

 10b. Define interference theory. What is the difference between proactive interference and retroactive interference? Provide examples of each.
 Proactive is when old info blocks new (like using last year’s locker combo). Retroactive is when new info blocks old (like forgetting old email password after making a new one).

 10c. What is decay theory?
 Memories fade away if you don’t use them.

 10d. Provide an example of tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT). What does the TOT phenomenon tell us about how we remember information?
 When you can’t say a word but feel like you know it. It shows the brain stores things in parts.

 10e. Define amnesia. Compare and contrast anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia.
 Amnesia is memory loss. Anterograde means you can't form new memories. Retrograde means you can't remember old ones.

 11. Who is Marigold Linton, Ph.D.?
 She’s a Native American psychologist who studied long-term memory and supported diversity in psychology.

What is cognition?
 Cognition means how we think, learn, remember, and understand things.

 2. What is artificial intelligence (AI)? How can AI be useful?
 AI is when machines act like humans by thinking and solving problems. It helps with things like Siri, Google, or self-driving cars.

 3. What is the definition of thinking?
 Thinking is using your brain to process info, make decisions, and solve problems.

 3a. What are concepts and why are concepts helpful or important?
 Concepts are categories we use to group similar things. They help us understand and organize the world, like knowing what a “dog” is.

 3b. Describe the prototype model and provide examples.
 The prototype is the best example of a concept. A robin is a prototype of a bird because it fits the “bird” idea better than a penguin.

 3c. What is the difference between problem solving, reasoning, and decision making?
 Problem solving = fixing something. Reasoning = thinking through steps. Decision making = picking between choices.

 3d. Define subgoals.
 Subgoals are small steps that help you solve a bigger problem, like writing an outline before an essay.

 3e. What is the difference between algorithms and heuristics?
 Algorithms are step-by-step and always work (like a math formula). Heuristics are quick guesses that work most of the time but not always.

 3f. What is functional fixedness and what is an example of it?
 It’s when you only see one use for something. Like needing a screwdriver but not realizing you can use a coin.

 3g. What is the difference between inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning?
 Inductive = using clues to make a guess (this dog barks, so all dogs bark). Deductive = using rules to reach a sure answer (all dogs bark, this is a dog, so it barks).

 3h. Compare and contrast the following biases and heuristics. Provide real-life examples of each.
 • Loss aversion: We hate losing more than we like winning. Example: Not selling stock because you don’t want to lose money.
 • Confirmation bias: Only seeing info that supports what you already believe. Example: Watching news that agrees with your opinion.
 • Hindsight bias: Thinking you “knew it all along” after something happens. Example: Saying “I knew they’d win” after a game.
 • Availability heuristic: Judging based on what’s easiest to remember. Example: Thinking plane crashes are common because you saw one on the news.
 • Base rate neglect: Ignoring facts about how common something is. Example: Thinking a shy person is more likely a librarian than a salesperson, even though there are way more salespeople.
 • Representativeness heuristic: Judging based on how something matches a stereotype. Example: Assuming someone with glasses is smart.

 3i. What is critical thinking?
 Thinking clearly, deeply, and asking questions before believing something.

 3j. What does mindfulness mean?
 Being aware and focused on what’s happening right now without judging it.

 3k. What is creative thinking? What is the difference between divergent thinking and convergent thinking?
 Creative thinking is coming up with new ideas. Divergent = many possible ideas. Convergent = one right answer.

 4. What is intelligence?
 Intelligence is the ability to learn, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

 4a. Define validity and reliability. What is the difference between them?
 Validity = test measures what it should. Reliability = test gives consistent results. A good test needs both.

 4b. Define intelligence quotient (IQ).
 IQ is a number that shows your intelligence level compared to others your age.

 4c. Define normal distribution. What is normal distribution in relation to intelligence scores?
 A normal distribution is a bell-shaped curve. Most IQ scores are near the middle (around 100), and few are very high or low.

 4d. What are culture-fair tests? Why is it so difficult to create them?
 They’re tests made to be fair to all cultures. It's hard because people grow up with different experiences and backgrounds.

 4e. What does it mean for an individual to be gifted? What is the minimum IQ score required for giftedness?
 Gifted means having high ability. An IQ of 130 or more is considered gifted.

 4f. What does it mean for an individual to have an intellectual disability?
 It means having limited mental ability and difficulties in everyday life, usually with an IQ below 70.

 4g. What is the triarchic theory of intelligence and what are the three forms of intelligence?
 The triarchic theory says there are 3 kinds of intelligence: analytical (solving problems), creative (new ideas), and practical (street smarts).

 5. Define language.
 Language is a system of words and rules used to communicate.

 5a. What is the difference between syntax and semantics?
 Syntax = rules of grammar. Semantics = meaning of words and sentences.

 5b. Describe biological influences for language development. What is Noam Chomsky’s theory of language development?
 Chomsky said we are born ready to learn language. Our brain has a "language device" that helps us pick it up.

 5c. Describe environmental influences for language development.
 We learn language from people around us—like parents, teachers, and friends—by hearing them speak.

 6. Who is Herman George Canady, Ph.D.?
 He was one of the first to study how the race of a test-giver affects test performance. He helped make testing more fair.

1. What do psychologists mean by the term development?
 Development is how people grow and change over time—physically, mentally, emotionally, and socially.

 2. Compare and contrast cross-sectional designs and longitudinal studies.
 Cross-sectional compares different age groups at one time. Longitudinal follows the same people over a long time.

 3. What do the terms nature and nurture refer to?
 Nature is your genes and what you’re born with. Nurture is how your environment and experiences shape you.

 4. What does it mean to have resilience?
 Resilience means being able to bounce back from hard times or challenges.

 5. What does the study of physical development focus on?
 It looks at changes in the body over time, like growth, puberty, and aging.

 5a. What is prenatal development? What are the three stages of prenatal development (in order)?
 Prenatal development is before birth. The three stages are germinal (first 2 weeks), embryonic (weeks 3–8), and fetal (week 9 to birth).

 5b. Define teratogens and provide examples.
 Teratogens are things that can harm a baby during pregnancy. Examples: drugs, alcohol, or viruses.

 6. What does the study of cognitive development focus on?
 It looks at how thinking, learning, and problem-solving change as we grow.

 6a. Identify and describe the four stages of Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development (in order).
 1. Sensorimotor (birth–2): learning through senses and actions.
 2. Preoperational (2–7): using words and pictures, but not logic.
 3. Concrete operational (7–11): thinking logically about concrete things.
 4. Formal operational (12+): thinking more abstractly and about the future.

 6b. Explain and provide examples of assimilation and accommodation.
 Assimilation = using old ideas for new things (calling a zebra a “horse”).
 Accommodation = changing your ideas for new info (learning that zebras are different from horses).

 6c. Explain and provide examples of object permanence, conservation, and egocentrism.
 Object permanence = knowing something exists even if you can’t see it (peek-a-boo).
 Conservation = knowing quantity stays the same even if shape changes (tall vs. wide glass).
 Egocentrism = thinking everyone sees the world the way you do (a kid hiding by covering their eyes).

 6d. Explain executive function and give examples of the cognitions and behaviors associated with this term.
 Executive function is self-control and planning. Example: focusing during class or waiting your turn.

 7. What does the study of socioemotional development focus on?
 It looks at how we understand feelings, build relationships, and handle emotions.

 7a. Define temperament.
 Temperament is your natural way of reacting, like being calm or fussy as a baby.

 7b. What is infant attachment?
 It’s the strong bond babies form with their caregivers.

 7c. Describe what the secure attachment style looks like in infants.
 Securely attached babies feel safe and trust their caregiver. They cry when the caregiver leaves and feel better when they return.

 7d. Name and describe Erikson's 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development.
 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy): learning to trust.
 2. Autonomy vs. Shame (toddler): learning independence.
 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (preschool): trying new things.
 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (school age): working hard.
 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (teen): figuring out who you are.
 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adult): forming close relationships.
 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle age): helping others or feeling stuck.
 8. Integrity vs. Despair (old age): feeling proud of your life or having regrets.

 7e. Identify and understand Baumrind’s 4 basic Parenting styles. Give examples of interactions with a parent that would demonstrate each style.
 1. Authoritarian: strict, “Because I said so.”
 2. Authoritative: firm but caring, sets rules and explains why.
 3. Permissive: lets kids do whatever they want.
 4. Neglectful: not involved or caring.

 7f. What is emerging adulthood?
 A stage from age 18–25 where people explore who they are before full adulthood.

 7g. What does the term gender mean?
 Gender is the cultural and social roles related to being male, female, or nonbinary.

 • What does gender identity mean?
 It’s how someone personally feels and identifies—like male, female, both, or neither.

 • What does sexual orientation mean?
 It’s who someone is romantically or sexually attracted to.

 • Explain gender roles and give examples.
 Gender roles are what society says boys and girls “should” do. Like “boys play sports” or “girls wear pink.”

 • What is the gender similarities hypothesis?
 It says men and women are more alike than different in most things.

 7h. Identify the three levels of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning. Describe the type of moral reasoning that occurs at the preconventional level, conventional level, and postconventional level.
 Preconventional: doing right or wrong based on punishment or rewards.
 Conventional: doing what’s right to follow rules or be liked.
 Postconventional: doing what’s right based on personal values or fairness.

 7i. Define prosocial behavior and provide examples.
 Prosocial behavior is helping others. Example: sharing lunch or comforting a friend.

 8. Who is Ruth Winifred Howard, Ph.D.?
 She was one of the first Black women to earn a Ph.D. in psychology. She helped children with special needs and worked to improve education.

1. How do psychologists define motivation and what are some of its characteristics?
 Motivation is the reason why we do things. It gets us to act, like studying, eating, or chasing goals.

 2. What is an instinct?
 An instinct is a natural behavior we’re born with, like a baby sucking or a bird building a nest.

 3. How does drive reduction theory explain motivation?
 We act to reduce drives (like hunger or thirst) and get back to balance.

 3a. What are the components of the theory? What is the difference between need and drive?
 A need is something the body must have (food). A drive is the feeling that pushes you to get it (hunger).

 3b. What is the goal of drive reduction?
 To return the body to balance (called homeostasis).

 4. How does optimum arousal theory explain motivation?
 We’re motivated to stay at just the right level of excitement—not too bored, not too stressed.

 4a. What is the Yerkes-Dodson law and how is it related to the optimum arousal theory?
 This law says we do best when arousal is moderate—not too high or too low.

 5. What is sexual orientation?
 It’s who someone is emotionally, romantically, or sexually attracted to—like boys, girls, both, or neither.

 6. What is the difference between pansexual and asexual?
 Pansexual = attracted to people regardless of gender. Asexual = not sexually attracted to anyone.

 7. Define LGBTQ community.
 LGBTQ stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer. It includes people of all gender and sexual identities.

 8. What are the components and order of the hierarchy of needs? Describe self-actualization.
 1. Physical needs (food, water)
 2. Safety
 3. Love/belonging
 4. Esteem (confidence, respect)
 5. Self-actualization = becoming your best self and reaching your full potential.

 9. How does self-determination theory explain motivation? What are the components of the theory? What is autonomy?
 It says we are motivated by three needs: autonomy (control over your life), competence (feeling capable), and relatedness (feeling connected to others).

 10. What is the difference between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation? What are examples of each?
 Intrinsic = doing something because you enjoy it (drawing for fun).
 Extrinsic = doing it for a reward or to avoid punishment (studying for a grade).

 11. What is self-regulation and how does it help us achieve goals?
 Self-regulation is controlling your behavior and emotions to stay on track. It helps you stay focused and not give up.

 12. How do psychologists define emotion? What are the components of an emotion?
 Emotions are feelings like happiness, fear, or anger. They have three parts: a physical reaction, a feeling, and an action (like crying or yelling).

 13. Compare and contrast the following theories of emotion: James-Lange theory, Cannon-Bard theory, two-factor theory of emotion.
 • James-Lange: you feel emotion because of your body’s reaction (cry → feel sad).
 • Cannon-Bard: body and emotion happen at the same time (you cry and feel sad together).
 • Two-factor: emotion = physical feeling + thinking about it (heart races + “I’m scared” = fear).

 14. What is the facial feedback hypothesis?
 It says making a face (like smiling) can actually make you feel that emotion (happier).

 15. Understand universal facial expressions.
 People around the world show emotions like happiness, sadness, anger, and fear with the same facial expressions.

 16. How are emotions influenced by display rules? What are some examples?
 Display rules are cultural rules about showing emotion. Example: in some cultures, people hide sadness in public.

 17. How are emotions categorized using the circumplex model? What is meant by valence and arousal in this model?
 Emotions are placed on two scales: valence (positive or negative) and arousal (high or low energy). Example: excited = positive/high; bored = negative/low.

 18. Who is Oliva M. Espín, Ph.D.?
 She’s a psychologist who studied Latina and immigrant women. She worked on gender, culture, and sexuality in psychology.

1. What is the definition of personality?
 Personality is the way you think, feel, and act that makes you different from others.

 2. How does the psychodynamic perspective explain personality?
 It says personality is shaped by unconscious thoughts and childhood experiences.

 2a. Identify and understand Freud’s three structures of personality. How do the id, ego, and superego contribute to one’s personality?
 • Id = wants pleasure right now (like a baby).
 • Ego = tries to be realistic and balance the id and superego.
 • Superego = your moral side, knows what’s right and wrong.

 2b. What are defense mechanisms? What’s their purpose (according to Freud)? Define and provide examples of denial, displacement, repression.
 Defense mechanisms protect us from stress or bad thoughts.
 • Denial = refusing to accept reality (ignoring bad news).
 • Displacement = taking out feelings on someone else (yelling at your brother after a bad day).
 • Repression = pushing bad memories out of your mind (forgetting a scary event).

 2c. Identify and describe Freud’s 4 Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development (in order).
 1. Oral (0–18 mo): pleasure from mouth (sucking).
 2. Anal (18–36 mo): control over potty training.
 3. Phallic (3–6 yrs): focus on genitals; Oedipus complex.
 4. Latency/Genital (6+): calm stage, later focus on adult relationships.

 3. How do the humanistic perspectives explain personality?
 They say people are good and want to grow and be their best selves.

 3a. What is unconditional positive regard?
 It’s being loved and accepted no matter what, like how a parent supports their child.

 3b. What is self-concept, and how is it related to conditions of self-worth?
 Self-concept = how you see yourself. If people only value you when you act a certain way, it affects your self-worth.

 4. How do trait perspectives explain personality?
 They say personality is made up of traits—stable qualities that guide behavior.

 4a. Define trait theories.
 Trait theories say we each have certain traits that stay mostly the same over time.

 4b. What are the Big Five factors of personality? (Hint: OCEAN)
 1. Openness = creative, curious.
 2. Conscientiousness = organized, careful.
 3. Extraversion = outgoing, social.
 4. Agreeableness = kind, trusting.
 5. Neuroticism = anxious, moody.

 5. How do social cognitive perspectives explain personality?
 They say personality is shaped by the way we think, learn, and interact with others.

 5a. Understand Bandura’s social cognitive theory and reciprocal determinism.
 Bandura said we learn by watching others.
 Reciprocal determinism means your personality, actions, and environment all influence each other.

 5b. What is the difference between internal locus of control versus external locus of control?
 Internal = you believe you control your life.
 External = you believe outside forces control your life (like luck).

 5c. What is self-efficacy?
 Self-efficacy is your belief that you can do something. Higher self-efficacy = more confidence in getting stuff done.

 6. What is the difference between self-report/objective tests of personality and projective tests of personality?
 Self-report tests have clear questions with choices.
 Projective tests show images and ask what you see, revealing hidden thoughts.

 6a. What is an empirically keyed test? What is the most widely used empirically keyed test?
 An empirically keyed test has questions that were tested on groups to see what answers match what traits.
 The most used one is the MMPI.

 6b. Describe the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI).
 It’s a long test with true/false questions to find personality traits and mental health signs.

 6c. What is face validity?
 Face validity means a test looks like it’s measuring what it’s supposed to. (It "makes sense" on the surface.)

 6d. What are two examples of projective tests?
 The Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

 6e. Compare and contrast the Rorschach Inkblot Test and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
 Rorschach = say what you see in inkblots.
 TAT = make up a story about pictures of people. Both show hidden thoughts.

 7. Who is Fanny M. Cheung, Ph.D.?
 She created tests to measure personality across cultures and helped promote mental health in Asia, especially for women.