What does the term 'angiostenin' refer to?; A substance that constricts blood vessels. What is 'atherosclerosis' characterized by?; Deposits of plaque in arteries. What does 'bradycardia' indicate?; An abnormally slow heartbeat. Define 'diastolic pressure'.; Blood pressure when the ventricle of the heart is relaxed. What is the definition of 'edema'?; Accumulation of fluids in the tissues that causes them to swell. What is an 'electrocardiogram'?; Recording of the electrical changes in the myocardium during a cardiac cycle. What is the characteristic of a 'semilunar valve'?; Valve with crescent-shaped flaps. What is the 'myocardium' composed of?; Muscle tissue within the wall of the heart. What does 'phlebitis' refer to?; Inflammation of a vein. What is 'arteriosclerosis' characterized by?; Loss of elasticity and hardening of a blood vessel wall. What does 'syncytium' indicate?; Mass of merging cells that act together. Define 'systolic pressure'.; Blood pressure resulting from a single ventricular contraction. What does 'tachycardia' indicate?; An abnormally fast heartbeat. How much blood does the heart pump through the body each day?; 7,000 liters. How many times does the heart contract in an average lifetime?; 2.5 billion times. What is the order in which the heart pumps blood through the blood vessels?; Arteries → arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins → back to heart. What does the heart and all blood vessels collectively make up?; The cardiovascular system. What does 'cardiovascular' refer to?; Both heart and blood vessels. What is the function of the pulmonary circuit?; Transporting oxygen-poor blood from the heart to the lungs, and back to the heart. What happens to the blood in the lungs?; It picks up oxygen and drops off carbon dioxide. What is the function of the systemic circuit?; Transporting oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all body cells, and back to the heart. What does the blood deliver to cells and remove from them?; Delivers nutrients and removes wastes. What does the left side of the heart contain?; Oxygen-rich blood. What does the right side of the heart contain?; Oxygen-poor blood. How many circuits does the blood run through?; 2 circuits: pulmonary circuit to lungs, and systemic circuit to body cells. What is the shape of the heart?; Hollow, cone-shaped. Where is the heart located in the body?; In the mediastinum of the thoracic cavity, superior to the diaphragm. How many chambers does the heart contain?; 4 chambers: 2 atria (upper chambers) and 2 ventricles (lower chambers, pumping action). How does heart size vary?; Heart size varies with body size. What are the average dimensions of the heart?; 14 cm long, 9 cm wide. Where does the heart lie?; In the thoracic cavity. What is the location of the heart in relation to the sternum?; Posterior to the sternum. Where is the base of the heart located?; Beneath the 2nd rib. Where is the apex of the heart located?; At the 5th intercostal space. What is the pericardium?; A covering over the heart and large blood vessels. What is the fibrous pericardium?; The outer layer that surrounds the double-layered serous membrane. Where is the parietal pericardium located?; Deep to the fibrous pericardium; outer layer of the serous membrane. What is the visceral pericardium also called?; The epicardium. What are the three distinct layers of the heart wall?; Epicardium, Myocardium, Endocardium. What is the outer layer of the heart wall also called?; Visceral pericardium. What is the middle layer of the heart wall composed of?; Cardiac muscle tissue. Which layer forms the inner lining of all heart chambers?; Endocardium. Which layer of the heart wall is the thickest?; Myocardium. What is the composition of the Epicardium?; Serous membrane of connective tissue covered with epithelium and including blood capillaries, lymph capillaries, and nerve fibers. What is the function of the Epicardium?; Forms a protective outer covering; secretes serous fluid. What is the composition of the Myocardium?; Cardiac muscle tissue separated by connective tissue and including blood capillaries, lymph capillaries, and nerve fibers. What is the function of the Myocardium?; Contracts to pump blood from the heart chambers. What is the composition of the Endocardium?; Membrane of epithelium and underlying connective tissue, including blood vessels. What is the function of the Endocardium?; Forms a protective inner lining of the chambers and valves. How many chambers is the heart divided into?; 4 chambers (2 atria and 2 ventricles). What are the characteristics of the atria?; Thin-walled upper chambers; receive blood returning to the heart. What are auricles in the heart?; Flap-like projections from the atria, which allow atrial expansion. Describe the ventricles of the heart.; Thick-walled lower chambers that pump blood into arteries. What is the function of the right atrium?; Receives blood returning from the systemic circuit and pumps blood to the right ventricle. Where does the right ventricle pump blood to?; To the lungs. What is the function of the left atrium?; Receives blood from the pulmonary veins and pumps blood to the left ventricle. Where does the left ventricle pump blood to?; To the systemic circuit. What is the function of the tricuspid valve?; Prevents blood from moving from the right ventricle into the right atrium during ventricular contraction. Where is the tricuspid valve located?; At the right atrioventricular orifice. What is the function of the pulmonary valve?; Prevents blood from moving from the pulmonary trunk into the right ventricle during ventricular relaxation. Where is the pulmonary valve located?; At the entrance to the pulmonary trunk. What is the function of the mitral valve?; Prevents blood from moving from the left ventricle into the left atrium during ventricular contraction. Where is the mitral valve located?; At the left atrioventricular orifice. What is the function of the aortic valve?; Prevents blood from moving from the aorta into the left ventricle during ventricular relaxation. Where is the aortic valve located?; At the entrance to the aorta. What is depicted in Figure 15.7?; A photo of a human tricuspid valve. What is depicted in Figure 15.8a?; A photo of a mitral (bicuspid) valve. What is the function of the tricuspid valve?; To prevent backflow of blood from the right ventricle to the right atrium. What is the function of the mitral (bicuspid) valve?; To prevent backflow of blood from the left ventricle to the left atrium. What is the function of the aortic valve?; To prevent backflow of blood from the aorta to the left ventricle. What is the function of the pulmonary valve?; To prevent backflow of blood from the pulmonary artery to the right ventricle. What surrounds the origins of the pulmonary trunk and aorta, and orifices between atria and ventricles in the heart?; Rings of dense connective tissue. What do the rings of dense connective tissue provide attachments for in the heart?; Heart valves and muscle fibers. What is the function of the rings of dense connective tissue in the heart?; To prevent excess dilation of heart chambers during contraction. What makes up the skeleton of the heart along with other fibrous masses in the interventricular septum?; The rings of dense connective tissue. What does Figure 15.9 depict?; Blood flow through the heart. What does Figure 15.1 illustrate?; Blood flow through the heart. What is the function of the left and right coronary arteries?; To supply blood to the tissues of the heart. Where do the coronary arteries originate from?; They are the first 2 branches of the aorta. What is the topic of Figure 15.13 in McGraw-Hill Education?; Blood Supply to the Heart. What is the cardiac cycle?; The events of a heartbeat. How do the heart chambers function during the cardiac cycle?; In a coordinated manner. What is atrial systole?; When the atria contract. What is ventricular diastole?; When the ventricles relax. What is ventricular systole?; When the ventricles contract. What is atrial diastole?; When the atria relax. How are heart actions regulated during the cardiac cycle?; So that atria contract while ventricles relax, then ventricles contract while atria relax. What is a heart transplant?; The replacement of most of a failing heart with a donor heart. What is a Left Ventricular Assist Device (LVAD)?; A mechanical half-heart used temporarily, until a donor heart is available. What is an Implantable Replacement Heart?; A titanium and plastic artificial heart used in people who cannot have a heart transplant and do not have long to live. What is the purpose of Stem Cell Technology in relation to the heart?; To culture cardiac muscle tissue from altered somatic cells or from stem cells, which may allow 'stem cell heart patches' in the future. What happens to the pressure in the heart chambers during a cardiac cycle?; It rises and falls. What causes the opening and closing of the valves during the cardiac cycle?; Pressure changes. During atrial systole and ventricular diastole, what happens to the ventricles?; They are relaxed. What percentage of blood flows passively from the atria into the ventricles during atrial systole and ventricular diastole?; About 70%. What pushes the remaining 30% of blood into the ventricles during atrial systole and ventricular diastole?; Atrial systole. What happens to the A-V valves during ventricular systole and atrial diastole?; They close. What prevents the cusps of the valves from bulging too far backward into the atria during ventricular systole and atrial diastole?; The chordae tendineae. What happens to the atria during ventricular systole and atrial diastole?; They relax. What happens to the ventricular pressure during ventricular systole and atrial diastole?; It increases and opens the semilunar valves. Where does the blood flow into during ventricular systole and atrial diastole?; Pulmonary trunk and aorta. What is the topic of Figure 15.15?; Regions at which sounds of heart valves can be heard. What do cardiac muscle cells form?; Branching networks. What is contained in the intercalated discs between cardiac muscle cells?; Gap junctions. How are action potentials spread through a network of cardiac muscle cells?; Through gap junctions in intercalated discs. What is a functional syncytium in cardiac muscle?; A mass of merging cells that function as a unit. Where do the two masses of functional syncytium exist in the heart?; In the atrial walls and ventricular walls, called the atrial syncytium and ventricular syncytium, respectively. What is the Cardiac Conduction System?; A group of clumps and strands of specialized cardiac muscle tissue. What is the function of the Cardiac Conduction System?; It initiates and distributes impulses throughout the myocardium and coordinates the events of the cardiac cycle. What is the function of the Sinoatrial (SA) Node?; It acts as the pacemaker and initiates rhythmic contractions of the heart. What is the role of the Internodal Atrial Muscle?; It conducts impulses from the SA node to the atria. What is the function of the Junctional Fibers?; They conduct impulses from the SA node to the AV node. What is the role of the Atrioventricular (AV) Node?; It conducts impulses to the AV Bundle and delays impulse so that atria finish contracting before ventricles contract. What is the function of the Atrioventricular (AV) Bundle (of His)?; It conducts impulses rapidly between the SA node and bundle branches. What do the Left and Right Bundle Branches do?; They split off from the AV bundle and conduct impulses to Purkinje fibers on both sides of the heart. What is the role of the Purkinje Fibers?; They are large fibers that conduct impulses to the ventricular myocardium. What are the major components of the cardiac conduction system?; Whorled networks of muscle in walls of ventricles. What happens when Purkinje fibers stimulate muscle cells in the ventricles?; The ventricles contract with a twisting motion. What is an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)?; A recording of electrical changes in the myocardium during the cardiac cycle. What is the purpose of using an ECG?; To assess the heart's ability to conduct impulses. What does the P wave represent in an ECG?; Atrial depolarization; occurs just prior to atrial contraction. What does the QRS complex represent in an ECG?; Ventricular depolarization; occurs just prior to ventricular contraction. What does the T wave represent in an ECG?; Ventricular repolarization; occurs just prior to ventricular relaxation. Why is the record of atrial repolarization 'hidden' in the large QRS complex?; Because ventricular depolarization is a much larger event. What normally controls the heart rate?; The S A node. What modifies the heart rate in response to changing conditions?; Sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers. What are some changing conditions that modify the heart rate?; Physical exercise, body temperature, fight-or-flight, concentration of various ions (such as K+ and Ca2+). How do parasympathetic impulses via vagus nerves affect heart rate?; They decrease heart rate due to influence on S A and AV nodes. How do sympathetic impulses via accelerator nerves affect heart rate?; They increase heart rate due to influence on S A and AV nodes, and ventricular myocardium. Where do baroreceptor reflexes arise from?; Cardiac control center in medulla oblongata. What do baroreceptor reflexes balance?; Inhibitory and excitatory effects of parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers. What does the cardiac control center regulate?; Autonomic impulses to the heart. What is the name of the reflex shown in Figure 15.22?; Baroreceptor Reflex. What does the baroreceptor reflex regulate?; Heart action. What type of impulses alter heart action in the baroreceptor reflex?; Autonomic impulses. What is the general arc of the baroreceptor reflex?; Autonomic impulses altering heart action. What is fibrillation?; Uncoordinated, chaotic contraction of small areas of myocardium. Is atrial fibrillation life-threatening?; No, it is not life-threatening. Is ventricular fibrillation often fatal?; Yes, it is often fatal. What is tachycardia?; Abnormally fast heartbeat, >100 beats/min at rest. What is bradycardia?; Abnormally slow heartbeat, < 60 beats/min at rest. What is flutter in the context of heart rhythms?; Rapid, regular contraction of a heart chamber, 250 - 350 beats/min. What is a premature beat in the cardiac cycle?; A beat that occurs before expected in the normal cardiac cycle; often originates from ectopic regions of the heart (other than SA node). What is an ectopic pacemaker?; Damage to SA node may lead to AV node taking over and act as a secondary pacemaker; 40 - 60/min, instead of 70 - 80. What is an artificial pacemaker used for?; It is a device used to treat disorders of the cardiac conduction system; implantable and battery-powered. What are the organs of the cardiovascular system?; Blood vessels. What is the function of blood vessels?; To form a closed circuit, transporting blood from the heart to body cells (or lungs) and back to the heart. What is the function of arteries?; To carry blood away from the ventricles of the heart. What is the function of arterioles?; To receive blood from the arteries, and carry it to the capillaries. What is the function of capillaries?; To be the sites of exchange of substances between the blood and the body cells. What is the function of venules?; To receive blood from the capillaries, and conduct it to veins. What is the function of veins?; To receive blood from venules, and carry it back to the atria of the heart. What type of blood vessel is shown at the bottom of Figure 15.23?; Arteriole. What type of blood vessel is shown at the top of Figure 15.23?; Venule. What is angiogenesis?; The formation of new blood vessels. What mainly controls angiogenesis?; Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF). Why is angiogenesis regulated in the body?; Excess, deficient, or inappropriate blood vessel formation can cause common diseases. How does the body promote angiogenesis in response to a blocked coronary artery?; By secreting VEGF. What can be used to deliver VEGF in time-release capsules if the body's secretion is not sufficient?; VEGF. Why do tumors secrete VEGF?; To nourish themselves. What are antiangiogenesis drugs used to treat?; Cancer and age-related macular degeneration. What are the three layers or tunics of arteries?; Tunica interna (intima), tunica media, and tunica externa (adventitia). What is the function of tunica interna (intima) in arteries?; It is the innermost layer. What is the composition of tunica media in arteries?; Smooth muscle and elastic tissue. What is the function of tunica externa (adventitia) in arteries?; It is the outer layer made of connective tissue. What type of blood pressure do arteries transport blood under?; High blood pressure. What do arteries give rise to?; Smaller arterioles. How do arterioles compare to arteries in terms of wall thickness?; Arterioles have a thinner wall than arteries. Do arterioles have the same layers or tunics as arteries?; Yes, arterioles have the same 3 layers or tunics as arteries. What happens to the walls of middle and outer layers as arterioles become smaller?; They become thinner. What can both arteries and arterioles undergo?; Vasoconstriction and vasodilation. What is the characteristic of small arterioles in terms of muscle fibers in their walls?; They only contain a few muscle fibers. What are capillaries?; The smallest-diameter blood vessels. What do capillaries connect?; The smallest arterioles and the smallest venules. What are the walls of capillaries made of?; Endothelium (simple squamous epithelium) only. What regulates capillary blood flow mainly?; Precapillary sphincters: smooth muscle surrounding capillary when it branches off arteriole or metarteriole. What is the permeability of capillaries?; They are semi-permeable. How are substances exchanged in capillaries?; By diffusion. Where are the openings in the walls of capillaries found?; Thin slits where endothelial cells overlap. How do the sizes of the openings in capillaries vary?; They vary among tissues. What varies with the size of the slits in capillaries?; Permeability. What is the relationship between metabolic rate and capillary networks in tissues?; Higher metabolic rate in a tissue leads to denser capillary networks. Why do muscle and nerve tissues have a rich capillary supply?; Because they use a large amount of O2 and nutrients. What is the capillary arrangement like in tissues with lower metabolic rate?; Tissues with lower metabolic rate have fewer capillaries. What is the main function of capillaries?; To exchange gases, nutrients, and metabolic byproducts between blood and tissue around cells. What are the methods of exchange that occur in capillaries?; Diffusion, filtration, and osmosis. What is the most important method of transfer in capillary exchange?; Diffusion. How do lipid-soluble substances diffuse through the cell membrane in capillary exchange?; They diffuse through the cell membrane. What forces molecules through the membrane in capillary exchange?; Hydrostatic pressure. What creates osmotic pressure in capillaries?; Presence of impermeant solute, such as plasma proteins. What does osmotic pressure draw into capillaries?; Water. At which end of the capillary do water and other substances leave the capillary?; Arteriolar end. Why do water and other substances leave the capillary at the arteriolar end?; Because hydrostatic pressure is greater than osmotic pressure. At which end of the capillary does water enter the capillary?; Venular end. Why does water enter the capillary at the venular end?; Because osmotic pressure is greater than hydrostatic pressure. What is the function of venules?; To transport blood from the capillaries to veins. How do the walls of venules compare to arterioles?; Venules have thinner walls and less smooth muscle than arterioles. How do the walls of veins compare to arteries?; Veins have thinner walls than arteries. How many layers or tunics do veins have?; Veins have 3 layers or tunics. How developed is the tunica media in veins?; The tunica media is less developed in veins. At what pressure do veins carry blood?; Veins carry blood under relatively low pressure. What is the function of veins in the circulatory system?; Veins function as blood reservoirs. What feature do many veins have that helps in blood flow?; Many veins have flap-like valves. What percentage of blood is in veins and venules at any time?; About 2/3 or 66% What are the three layers of an artery wall?; An endothelial lining, a middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue, and an outer layer of connective tissue. What is the function of an artery?; Carries blood under relatively high pressure from the heart to arterioles. What are the components of an arteriole wall?; An endothelial lining, some smooth muscle tissue, and a small amount of connective tissue. What is the function of an arteriole?; Connects an artery to a capillary, helps control the blood flow into a capillary by vasoconstricting or vasodilating. What is the structure of a capillary wall?; Single layer of squamous epithelium. What is the function of a capillary?; Allows nutrients, gases, and wastes to be exchanged between the blood and tissue fluid; connects a venule. What are the components of a venule wall?; Thinner wall than an arteriole, less smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue. What is the function of a vein?; Carries blood under relatively low pressure from a venule to the heart; valves prevent a backflow of blood; serves as a blood reservoir. What is atherosclerosis?; Deposits of cholesterol plaque forming in the inner lining of artery walls. What is an aneurysm?; A bulge in the wall of an artery, formed when blood pressure dilates a weakened area of the vessel; it can burst the artery wall. What is phlebitis?; Inflammation of a vein; a common disorder. What are varicose veins?; Abnormal and irregular dilations in superficial veins; most common in the legs. What is blood pressure?; The force the blood exerts against the inner walls of the blood vessels. Where does the term 'blood pressure' most commonly refer to?; Pressure in systemic arteries. Is there blood pressure throughout the vascular system?; Yes, there is blood pressure throughout the vascular system. How does blood move throughout the system in terms of pressure?; From higher to lower pressure. What causes arterial blood pressure to rise?; When the ventricles contract. When does arterial blood pressure fall?; When the ventricles relax. What is systolic pressure (S P)?; The maximum pressure reached during ventricular contraction. What is diastolic pressure (D P)?; The minimum pressure remaining before the next ventricular contraction. What is pulse pressure (P P)?; The difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressures (S P - D P). What is mean arterial pressure (M A P)?; The average pressure in the arterial system; represents the average force driving blood to the tissues. How is blood pressure stated as a fraction?; SP 120, as in. DP 80 In what units is blood pressure stated?; In units of mm Hg. How is arterial blood pressure typically measured?; With a sphygmomanometer. What happens to blood pressure as the distance from the left ventricle increases?; It decreases. Where are the sites for measuring arterial pulse located?; At locations where the pulse is most easily detected. What is the title of Figure 15.34 in the McGraw-Hill Education book?; Factors That Influence Arterial Blood Pressure. What is stroke volume (SV)?; The volume of blood that enters the arteries with each ventricular contraction, approximately 70 mL/beat. Define cardiac output (CO).; The volume of blood discharged from a ventricle each minute, calculated as CO = SV × HR. What is the formula for calculating cardiac output?; Cardiac output (CO) = Stroke volume (SV) × Heart rate (HR). What is the value of cardiac output when stroke volume is 70 mL/beat and heart rate is 72 beats/min?; 5,040 mL/min. How does blood pressure vary with cardiac output?; Blood pressure varies with cardiac output. What effect does an increase in stroke volume or heart rate have on cardiac output and blood pressure?; An increase in SV or HR causes an increase in CO, which in turn increases the blood pressure (BP). What is blood volume?; The sum of volumes of plasma and formed elements. What factors can cause variation in blood volume?; Age, body size, and gender. What is the average blood volume for adults?; About 5 liters. How does blood volume relate to body weight?; It is approximately 8% of body weight. How is blood pressure related to blood volume?; Blood pressure is directly proportional to blood volume. What happens to blood pressure when blood volume decreases?; It decreases. What is peripheral resistance (PR)?; The force of friction between blood and walls of blood vessels. What must blood pressure overcome in order to flow?; Peripheral resistance (PR). How does vasoconstriction of arterioles affect peripheral resistance?; It increases peripheral resistance (PR), which increases the blood pressure. What happens when blood is pumped out of ventricles?; Arteries swell; rapid elastic recoil sends the blood through the arteries, against peripheral resistance in arterioles and capillaries. What is viscosity?; The difficulty with which molecules of fluid flow past each other. How does viscosity affect blood flow?; Greater viscosity leads to greater resistance to blood flow. What increases the viscosity of blood?; Blood cells and plasma proteins. How does increased resistance to flow affect blood pressure?; It increases the force necessary to transport the blood, leading to higher blood pressure. How does altering the concentration of blood cells or plasma proteins affect blood viscosity?; It also alters blood viscosity. Give an example of how altering the concentration of blood cells affects blood pressure.; Anemia lowers the concentration of blood cells, which in turn lowers blood viscosity and blood pressure. How is blood pressure (BP) determined?; By cardiac output (CO) and peripheral resistance (PR) using the formula BP = CO × PR. What factors determine the maintenance of blood pressure?; Cardiac output (CO) and peripheral resistance (PR). What is the formula for calculating blood pressure?; BP = CO × PR. What are the two factors that require regulation for the maintenance of blood pressure?; Cardiac output (CO) and peripheral resistance (PR). Who is the publisher of the material?; McGraw-Hill Education. What are the references for the figures?; Figures 15.36 and 15.37. What is hypertension?; Long-lasting elevated arterial blood pressure. What are the causes of hypertension?; Unknown cause, increased Na intake, psychological stress, obesity, kidney disease. Why is hypertension called the 'silent killer'?; Because it may not cause any direct symptoms. How does hypertension contribute to the formation of atherosclerosis?; It contributes to the formation of atherosclerosis. What are the potential consequences of hypertension?; Coronary thrombosis, embolism, cerebral thrombosis, embolism, hemorrhage, transient ischemic attack (TIA), cerebral vascular accident (CVA). What are the recommended prevention measures for hypertension?; Healthy diet and weight, regular exercise, limiting Na intake. What are the treatments for hypertension?; Diuretics, sympathetic inhibitors. What happens to blood pressure as it moves through the arterial system and into the capillary network?; It decreases. What factors contribute to venous blood flow?; Skeletal muscle contraction, breathing movements, and vasoconstriction of veins. Is venous blood flow solely a result of heart action?; No, it is only partly a direct result of heart action. Where do all veins, except those returning from the lungs, drain into?; The right atrium. What is the pressure in the right atrium called?; Central venous pressure. What factors influence central venous pressure?; Factors that alter the flow of blood into the right atrium. How does a weakly beating heart affect central venous pressure?; It increases central venous pressure. What happens when central venous pressure increases?; Blood backs up into the peripheral veins. What can an increase in central venous pressure lead to?; Peripheral edema. What increases blood flow to the right atrium, leading to an increase in central venous pressure?; Increase in blood volume or venoconstriction. How does the cardiovascular system adapt to aerobic exercise?; Increased pumping efficiency, blood volume, hemoglobin concentration, and number of mitochondria. By how much can the heart enlarge due to regular aerobic exercise?; 40% or more. What happens to the stroke volume during aerobic exercise?; It increases. What must the heart rate increase to during exercise to benefit the cardiovascular system?; 70 to 85% of maximum (220 - your age). How long should aerobic exercise last to benefit the cardiovascular system?; 30 to 60 minutes. How often should aerobic exercise be performed to benefit the cardiovascular system?; At least 3 to 4 times per week. How many pathways do blood vessels form?; Two pathways: the pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit. What is the pathway of blood in the pulmonary circuit?; Right ventricle → pulmonary trunk → right and left pulmonary arteries → lobar branches, repeated divisions → pulmonary arterioles → pulmonary capillaries → pulmonary venules and veins → left atrium. What is the oxygen and carbon dioxide content of blood in pulmonary arteries and arterioles?; Low in O2 and high in CO2. Where does gas exchange occur in the pulmonary circuit?; In pulmonary (alveolar) capillaries. What is the pathway of oxygen-rich blood in the systemic circuit?; Left ventricle → aorta → all arteries and arterioles leading to body tissues → systemic capillaries → systemic venules and veins → right atrium. What happens when the left ventricle contracts in the systemic circuit?; It sends blood into the systemic circuit. What draws water out of alveoli due to high osmotic pressure in interstitial fluid?; High osmotic pressure in interstitial fluid. What is the largest artery in the body?; The aorta. What does the aorta supply blood to?; All of the systemic arteries. What are the major branches of the ascending aorta and the organs they supply?; Right and left coronary arteries supply the heart. Which artery arises from the arch of the aorta and supplies the right upper limb and right side of the head?; Brachiocephalic trunk. Which artery supplies the diaphragm?; Phrenic artery. What does the left common carotid artery supply?; Left side of the head. Which artery supplies portions of the small and large intestines?; Superior mesenteric artery. What does the left subclavian artery supply?; Left upper limb. Which artery supplies the adrenal gland?; Suprarenal artery. What organs does the renal artery supply?; Kidney. Which artery supplies the bronchi?; Bronchial artery. What does the inferior mesenteric artery supply?; Lower portions of the large intestine. Which artery supplies the esophagus?; Esophageal artery. What does the common iliac artery supply?; Lower abdominal wall, pelvic organs, and lower limb. What does Figure 15.41 in McGraw-Hill Education depict?; Major vessels associated with the heart. Which arteries supply blood to the brain, head, and neck?; Branches of the subclavian and common carotid arteries. What is another name for the cerebral arterial circle?; Circle of Willis. What does the cerebral arterial circle join?; The carotid and vertebral artery systems. What is the function of the arteries in the cerebral arterial circle?; To supply blood to the brain. Why does the arrangement of the cerebral arterial circle provide alternate pathways for blood to reach the brain?; To ensure blood supply to the brain even if one pathway is blocked. Where do the cerebral arteries emerge from the circle to supply blood?; To the brain tissues. What artery gives off branches in the neck and continues into the arm?; The subclavian artery. How does blood reach the thoracic wall?; Via branches of several vessels, including the subclavian artery and the thoracic aorta. What does the abdominal aorta divide into?; The common iliac arteries. What areas are supplied with blood by the common iliac arteries?; The pelvic organs, gluteal region, and lower limbs. What are the divisions of the common iliac artery?; The internal iliac artery and external iliac artery. Which areas are supplied with blood by the internal iliac artery?; The pelvic and gluteal areas. Which arteries provide the major blood supply to the lower limbs?; The external iliac arteries. What is the title of the figure?; Venous System. What does the systemic venous circulation do?; Returns blood to the heart after exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes between blood and cells. From where do vessels of the venous system originate?; From the merging of capillaries into venules, venules into small veins, and small veins into larger ones. Why are the pathways of the venous system difficult to follow?; Due to irregular networks and unnamed tributaries. How do the pathways of larger veins usually run?; They usually parallel arteries of the same name. Where do all systemic veins converge?; Into the superior and inferior venae cavae, and return to the heart through the right atrium. What do the external jugular veins drain blood from?; The face, scalp, and superficial neck. What areas are drained by the internal jugular veins?; The brain, and deep portions of the face and neck. How many systems of veins drain the upper limb and shoulder?; Two systems: deep set of veins and superficial set of veins. What are the deep set of veins in the upper limb and shoulder?; Digital veins, radial and ulnar veins, and brachial veins. What do the superficial set of veins in the upper limb and shoulder do?; They form anastomoses in the palm and wrist, leading to basilic and cephalic veins. Which veins join the brachial vein?; The basilic vein. Which vein joins the axillary vein?; The cephalic vein. Which veins drain the abdominal and thoracic walls?; Tributaries of the brachiocephalic and azygos veins. Where does the azygos vein drain directly into?; The superior vena cava. What is the unique venous pathway that drains blood from the abdominal viscera?; The hepatic portal system. Which organs drain blood into the hepatic portal vein?; Stomach, intestines, pancreas, and spleen. Where does the hepatic portal vein transport blood to?; To the liver for processing. What is unusual about portal veins?; They do not transport blood directly to the heart. What is the final destination of the blood after it is processed in the liver?; Inferior vena cava. What are examples of portal systems in the body?; Hepatic Portal System and Renal Portal System. How many sets of capillaries do portal systems filter blood through?; 2 sets. What unique function does the second set of capillaries in portal systems perform?; Perform a unique function in the body. Where does blood from the lower limb drain into?; Deep and superficial groups of veins. What is the sequence of veins in the deep set of veins from the foot to the external iliac vein?; Veins in foot → anterior and posterior tibial veins → popliteal vein → femoral vein → external iliac vein. What is the sequence of veins in the superficial set of veins from the foot?; Veins in foot → small and great saphenous veins. Which vein is the longest in the body?; Great saphenous vein. What are the effects of life-span changes on blood vessels?; Cholesterol deposition, narrowed coronary arteries, thickening of arterial walls, and decreased arterial elasticity. How does the heart change in size due to disease during life-span changes?; It may shrink slightly or enlarge. What happens to the proportion of the heart consisting of cardiac muscle during life-span changes?; It declines. What changes occur in the heart's composition during life-span changes?; Increase in fibrous connective tissue and adipose tissue. What changes may occur in the heart valves and left ventricular wall during life-span changes?; They may thicken. What happens to systolic blood pressure during life-span changes?; It increases. How does resting heart rate change during life-span changes?; It decreases. What are the molecular causes of cardiovascular disease?; Both environmental and hereditary factors. What is the example of a connective tissue defect causing cardiovascular disease?; Marfan syndrome involving an abnormal type of the protein fibrillin. What can result from Marfan syndrome?; Bursting of the aorta and sudden death. What is familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?; It is an inherited overgrowth of myocardium caused by abnormal myosin chain in cardiac muscle. What can result from familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?; Sudden death. What happens due to inherited deficiency of a mitochondrial enzyme that breaks down fatty acids?; Heart failure results from the inability to break down long-chain fatty acids and use them for energy. What is familial hypercholesterolemia?; It is a condition where abnormal LDL (low-density lipoprotein) receptors on liver cells do not take up cholesterol from the blood, resulting in high cholesterol and coronary artery disease. What is Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)?; It is a disease involving the deposition of cholesterol plaque on the inner walls of coronary arteries. What does Coronary Artery Disease lead to?; Obstruction of coronary arteries and oxygen deficiency in the cardiac muscle. What are the common accompaniments of Coronary Artery Disease?; High serum cholesterol and hypertension. What is the common symptom of Coronary Artery Disease upon exertion?; Pain in the chest, called angina pectoris. What is a major contributing factor to myocardial infarction (heart attack)?; Coronary Artery Disease. What are the treatments for Coronary Artery Disease?; Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) and coronary bypass surgery. Where is the aortic valve best heard?; In the second intercostal space right of the sternum. Where is the pulmonary valve best heard?; In the second intercostal space left of the sternum. Where is the tricuspid valve best heard?; At the fifth intercostal space left of the sternum. Where is the mitral valve best heard?; In the fifth intercostal space on the left at the nipple line. Where can the pulse be easily taken for the temporal artery?; Anterior to the ear. Where is the carotid artery located for taking the pulse?; In the inferior medial portion of the neck. Where can the pulse be taken for the brachial artery?; In the distal brachial region on the anterior side. Where is the radial artery located for taking the pulse?; On the lateral side of the wrist on the anterior side. Where can the pulse be taken for the femoral artery?; In the inguinal region. Where is the popliteal artery located for taking the pulse?; In the popliteal region. Where can the pulse be taken for the dorsalis pedis artery?; In the anterior ankle. Where is the posterior tibia artery located for taking the pulse?; In the posterior ankle. What is the function of the organs of the cardiovascular system?; To transport oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and cellular waste products throughout the body. What are the coverings of the heart and the layers that compose the wall of the heart?; The coverings include the pericardium and the layers that compose the wall of the heart are the epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium. What are the major parts of the heart and their functions?; The major parts include the atria, ventricles, valves, and septa. The atria receive blood, the ventricles pump blood, the valves prevent backflow, and the septa separate the chambers. What is the pathway of the blood through the heart and the vessels of coronary circulation?; Blood enters the right atrium, then flows to the right ventricle, then to the pulmonary artery, to the lungs, back to the left atrium, then to the left ventricle, and finally to the aorta. Coronary circulation involves the coronary arteries and cardiac veins. What is the cardiac cycle and how are heart sounds produced?; The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occur when the heart beats. Heart sounds are produced by the closing of heart valves and the vibrations in the heart tissues. What are the parts of a normal ECG pattern?; The P wave, QRS complex, and T wave. What is the significance of a normal ECG pattern?; It indicates the electrical activity of the heart and helps diagnose heart conditions. How is the cardiac cycle controlled?; Through electrical signals and the autonomic nervous system. What are the major types of blood vessels and how do their structures and functions compare?; Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood back to the heart, and capillaries allow for exchange of substances. Arteries have thick walls, veins have valves, and capillaries have thin walls for exchange. How are substances exchanged between blood in capillaries and the tissue fluid surrounding body cells?; Through diffusion and active transport. How is blood pressure produced and controlled?; It is produced by the force of the heart pumping and controlled by the nervous and endocrine systems. What mechanisms aid in returning venous blood to the heart?; Muscle contractions, one-way valves, and the respiratory pump. What is the main difference between the pulmonary and systemic circuits of the cardiovascular system?; The pulmonary circuit carries blood to the lungs for oxygenation, while the systemic circuit carries oxygenated blood to the body. What are the major arteries and veins in the arterial and venous systems?; Identify and locate the major arteries and veins. What are the changes in the cardiovascular system that occur throughout a person's lifespan?; Lifespan changes in the cardiovascular system.