Sociology Vocabulary

conflict theory

a theory that examines social and economic factors as the causes of criminal deviance

control theory

a theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society

1. Attachment measures our connections to others. When we are closely attached to people, we worry about their opinions of us. People conform to society’s norms in order to gain approval (and prevent disapproval) from family, friends, and romantic partners.

2. Commitment refers to the investments we make in the community. A well-respected local businessperson who volunteers at their synagogue and is a member of the neighborhood block organization has more to lose from committing a crime than a person who doesn’t have a career or ties to the community.

3. Similarly, levels of involvement, or participation in socially legitimate activities, lessen a person’s likelihood of deviance. A child who plays little league baseball and takes art classes has fewer opportunities to ______.

4. The final bond, belief, is an agreement on common values in society. If a person views social values as beliefs, they will conform to them. An environmentalist is more likely to pick up trash in a park, because a clean environment is a social value to them (Hirschi 1969).

corporate crime

crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment

corrections system

the system tasked with supervising individuals who have been arrested for, convicted of, or sentenced for criminal offenses

court

a system that has the authority to make decisions based on law

crime

a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions

criminal justice system

an organization that exists to enforce a legal code

deviance

a violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms

differential association theory

a theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance

formal sanctions

sanctions that are officially recognized and enforced

hate crimes

attacks based on a person’s race, religion, or other characteristics

informal sanctions

sanctions that occur in face-to-face interactions

labeling theory

the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society

legal codes

codes that maintain formal social control through laws

master status

a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual

negative sanctions

punishments for violating norms

nonviolent crimes

crimes that involve the destruction or theft of property, but do not use force or the threat of force

police

a civil force in charge of regulating laws and public order at a federal, state, or community level

positive sanctions

rewards given for conforming to norms

power elite

a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources

primary deviance

a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual’s self-image or interactions with others

sanctions

the means of enforcing rules

secondary deviance

deviance that occurs when a person’s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society

self-report study

a collection of data acquired using voluntary response methods, such as questionnaires or telephone interviews

social control

the regulation and enforcement of norms

social disorganization theory

a theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control

social order

an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society’s members base their daily lives

strain theory

a theory that addresses the relationship between having socially acceptable goals and having socially acceptable means to reach those goals

1. Conformity: Those who conform choose not to deviate. They pursue their goals to the extent that they can through socially accepted means.

2. Innovation: Those who innovate pursue goals they cannot reach through legitimate means by instead using criminal or deviant means.

3. Ritualism: People who ritualize lower their goals until they can reach them through socially acceptable ways. These members of society focus on conformity rather than attaining a distant dream.

4. Retreatism: Others retreat and reject society’s goals and means. Some people who beg and people who are homeless have withdrawn from society’s goal of financial success.

5. Rebellion: A handful of people rebel and replace a society’s goals and means with their own. Terrorists or freedom fighters look to overthrow a society’s goals through socially unacceptable means.

street crime

crime committed by average people against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces

victimless crime

activities against the law, but that do not result in injury to any individual other than the person who engages in them

violent crimes

crimes based on the use of force or the threat of force

Émile Durkheim and deviance

• Deviance in society brings stability with it

Karl Marx and deviance

• Marx believed that the general population was divided into two groups. He labeled the wealthy, who controlled the means of production and business, the bourgeois. He labeled the workers who depended on the bourgeois for employment and survival the proletariat. Marx believed that the bourgeois centralized their power and influence through government, laws, and other authority agencies in order to maintain and expand their positions of power in society. Though Marx spoke little of deviance, his ideas created the foundation for conflict theorists who study the intersection of deviance and crime with wealth and power.

C. Wright Mills
Definition: An American sociologist known for his influential analyses of the structure of power in society and for his critique of the way that individual experiences are connected to larger social forces.

White Collar Crime
Definition: Crime committed by individuals in their professional life or business environment, typically involving deceit or violation of trust, rather than physical violence.