o Adams was chosen as President Dwight Eisenhower's Chief of Staff and was considered perhaps the most powerful figure in the Eisenhower administration prior to his 1958 resignation

o Adams had virtual control over White House staff operations and domestic policy

• Richard Nixon – Vice President

o Nixon's prominence as an anti-Communist soon brought him to greater national attention. General Dwight Eisenhower, the Republican candidate for president in 1952, selected Nixon as his running mate.

o Under Eisenhower, Nixon made the vice presidency a visible and important office. Nixon chaired National Security Council meetings in the president's absence and undertook many goodwill tours of foreign countries to shore up support for American policies during the Cold War.

• Earl Warren - Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1953-1969)

o Supreme Court Chief Justice: Brown v Board of Education in 1954

o During its tenure, the Warren Court generated a seismic shift in criminal justice procedure.

Cold War, Vietnam War Political Leaders (PPP #9) - Matching

• Nikita Khrushchev

o Leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1950s to 1964

o Khrushchev publicized Stalin's crimes, was a major player in the Cuban Missile Crisis and established a more open form of Communism in the USSR

• Ho Chi Minh

o Nationalist revolutionary, He was president of North Vietnam from 1954 to 1969.

o In 1960 Ho Chi-Minh formed the National Liberation Front or Viet Cong to resist the American supported non-communist government in South Vietnam.

• Ngo Dinh Diem

o Diem (1901-63) a Catholic Vietnamese politician. He was the US-backed ruler of South Vietnam between 1954 until his assassination in November 1963

• Louis St Laurent

A politician and lawyer from Canada who served as the country's 12th prime minister from 1948 to 1957

• Fidel Castro

o Castro orchestrated the Cuban Revolution

▪ Beginning in 1958, Fidel Castro and his forces began a campaign of guerrilla warfare which led to the overthrow of Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista. As the country's new leader, Castro implemented communist domestic policies and initiated military and economic relations with the Soviet Union that led to strained relations with the United States.

o Castro was the head of Cuba's government from 1959 until 2008.

Civil Rights Leaders and Key Players - Matching

• Rosa Parks

o Parks (1913—2005) helped initiate the civil rights movement in the United States when she refused to give up her seat to a white man on a Montgomery, Alabama bus in 1955. Her actions inspired the leaders of the local Black community to organize the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

• Ella Baker

o Baker (1903-1986) became one of the leading figures of the civil rights movement of the 1950s and '60s. Following her early work for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, she was among the founders of Martin Luther King's Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957. Three years later, she helped launch the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee

• Thurgood Marshall

o Marshall (AKA Mr. Civil Rights) was a civil rights lawyer who used the courts to fight Jim Crow and dismantle segregation in the U.S.

o Marshall was a towering figure who became the nation's first Black United States Supreme Court Justice. He is best known for arguing the historic 1954 Brown v. Board of Education case, in which the Supreme Court declared "separate but equal" unconstitutional in public schools

• Martin Luther King Jr. (MLK)

o A Baptist minister and civil-rights activist

o MLK (1929-1968) emerged as a prominent national leader of the civil rights movementduring the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955-1956

o Shortly after the boycott’s end, he helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957

1. Red Scare after World War II (McCarthyism) moves into the 1950s

• A desire for greater national security in the United States emerged immediately after the Second World War and continued into the 1950s because of fear of the spread of international communism

• Both Democrats and especially Republicans and supported the broader goal of fighting communism domestically.

• Senator Joseph McCarthy charged that communists were employed in the State Department and other branches of the federal government.

• Senator Joseph McCarthy’s investigative tactics found support among many Americans from 1950-1954 because there was widespread fear of communist infiltration of the United States

o A desire for greater national security in the United States emerged immediately after the Second World War (1945-1950)

o Domestic containment was bolstered by a powerful political culture that rewarded its adherents and marginalized its detractors

• The reason eventual development of political resistance to the tactics used by Senator McCarthy during the period known as the Red Scare included:

o Television audiences witnessed his manner of leveling unsubstantiated charges during the army hearings of 1954

o Eisenhower’s “Hidden Hand” Leadership in 1954

o Increased efforts of members of the Senate to limit what they believed to be the excesses of Senator McCarthy in his efforts to identify communist influence in the government in 1954

• The Korean War (1950-1953) Aftermath

o Ended during the first six months of the Eisenhower Administration

o The Korean War resulted in containment but no victory, a draw in 1953

o Korean War Context from the Truman Administration

▪ After Korea’s separation along the 38th parallel, the United States and the Soviet Union installed leaders in each country. The U.S. supported western-educated Syngman Rhee as president of South Korea. In North Korea, the Soviets picked Kim Il Sung, who embraced communism to garner foreign support and establish himself as leader. Both men solidified their power and wanted to unify Korea. President Harry Truman believed a separated Korea would help support his containment policy, which was supposed to stem the tide of communist expansion.

▪ In June 1950, North Korea launched an invasion into South Korea. With Soviet and Chinese military support, the North Korean army swept over the peninsula, killing many in its path. Within three days, the North Korean army controlled South Korea’s capital, Seoul. The North Korean occupation was brutal on the South Korean population. The small number of American troops supporting the South Korean army were overwhelmed.

▪ Back in Washington, D.C., the Americans were in shock and unprepared. Since the end of World War II, the U.S. military had drastically downsized. As the Soviet Union obtained nuclear weapons and China fell to communism, President Truman was besieged with accusations of being “soft on communism.” His policy of “containing” communism rather than defeating it was questioned by many Americans and criticized by his political opponents. One of his biggest critics was Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy, a Republican who was leading a crusade against the “Red Menace,” accusing many in the Truman administration of being communist sympathizers

▪ President Truman’s response to the invasion of South Korea in 1950 was he asked the UN Security Council to authorize a “police action.”

▪ Note: Before 1950, the United States had gone to war 11 times, always through a formal declaration by Congress with the president subsequently acting as commander in chief of the military. Truman decided not to go to Congress for a declaration of war, but instead followed the recommendation of the UN Security Council to send American troops to Korea. This marked the first time the U.S. was engaged in a major conflict without a formal declaration of war by Congress.

o A long-term consequence of the Korean War was it established a precedent of avoiding atomic weapons in future Cold War proxy conflicts.

2. Eisenhower’s Leadership and Domestic Policy

• Eisenhower’s Biography/Background (Military Service, Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces in World War II, President of Columbia University Supreme commander of NATO)

• Eisenhower Elections: 1952, 1956

• Middle Way Domestic Policy

o Compromise between rising Conservative Movement on the Right and Liberal

o “Dynamic Conservatism” (“Middle of the Road” Political Beliefs)

o Smaller Role for Federal Government

o Reform attempts in federalism

o Fiscal Policy

▪ 3 Balanced Budgets

▪ Increased Government Spending After Recessions

▪ Conservative Republicans critical

• Rise of Sen. Barry Goldwater

o Continue some “New Deal” Programs

▪ Social Security Expansion

▪ Raise Minimum Wage

o Water Projects in the West

• Eisenhower and Infrastructure

o Interstate Highway Act of 1956

o Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway

• Period of Economic Growth and Affluence in the United States during the 1950s(Rise of White Middle Class)

o Historic Economic Growth (GDP – Goods and Services)

o Dominance of U.S. Companies/Corporations

o Rise of the Suburbs (White Flight)

o Impact of Advertising (Advertising firms in New York on Madison Avenue)

3. “New Look Foreign Policy” and the Roots of the Vietnam War – Eisenhower’s 1^st Term

• “Hidden Hand” Leadership

• Eisenhower and Soft Power

• Shift in the Cold War

o Death of Stalin in 1953 as Leader of the Soviet Union

o Rise of Nikita Khrushchev at the Leader

▪ “Summits” in 1955 and 1959

• New Look

o Role of Truman’s Containment Policy

o Domino Theory

o Advocacy of multi-nation responses to communist aggression in preference to unilateral action by the United States.

o The idea that came to be known as the "bigger bang for the buck" defense strategy. This postulated that a cheaper and more efficient defense could be built around the nation's nuclear arsenal rather than a massive increase in conventional land, air, and sea forces

o Covert operations by the CIA

o Examples in Latin America and Asia

• Role of Secretary of State John Foster Dulles

o “Rollback”

o Massive Retaliation

o Brinkmanship

• Covert Action by the CIA

o CIA helped overthrow Mossadegh's government in Iran and restore the shah's power.

o CIA helped overthrow the elected government of Guatemala

▪ Role of the United Fruit Company

• Vietnam War

o Overview

▪ North Vietnam - Communists

• Viet Minh (1940s to 1950s)

• National Liberation Front (NLF) – Viet Cong (Late 1950s to 1970s) – Communists in South

• North Vietnamese Army (NVA)

• Key Leaders

o Ho Chi Minh (1941 to 1969)

o General Vo Nguyen Giap (1940s to 1970s)

o Le Duan - Vietnamese communist politician (1950s to 1980s)

▪ South Vietnam – Anti-Communists

▪ Army of the Republic of Vietnam – A.R.V.N.

▪ Key Leaders

• Ngo Dinh Diem (1954-1963)

• Nguyen Van Thieu (1967-1975)

o Roots: 1858 – 1945

▪ French Colony

▪ Japan and World War II

▪ U.S. Support in 1941-1945

o First Indochina War: 1946 to 1954

▪ After the Vietnamese won at Dienbienphu over French in 1954, Vietnam was split at the 17th parallel

o Connection to the Truman Doctrine

o Domino Theory

o U.S. involvement in Vietnam during the Truman Administration (1945-1953)

o U.S. involvement in Vietnam during the Eisenhower Administration (1953-1961)

• Eisenhower and Containment

o Giving Economic Aid to friendly Third World Countries

o Funding Propaganda agencies around the World (Example: Radio Free Europe, Radio Asia, etc.)

• Latin America and the Cold War in the 1950s

o Latin American nations resented the United States’ giving billions of dollars to Europe compared to millions to Latin America, as well as the U.S.’s constant intervention (Guatemala, 1954), as well as its support of cold dictators who claimed to be fighting communism.

o In the 1950s, U.S. policy in Latin America often supported military dictatorships that allowed U.S. investment and suppressed leftist movements

4. The Start of the Modern Civil Rights Movement in 1954 and 1955

• Jim Crow Laws in place since the Nadir Era of the 1890s-1920s

• Three Goals of the Modern Civil Rights Movement

• De Facto vs. De Jure Segregation

• Ralph Ellison and the best-selling book in the early 1950s - Invisible Man

• Acceleration of Civil Rights Movement (Outside of Government and National Organizations)

o Rise of TV

o Impact of Cold War and World War II

o Expanding role of African-Americans in popular culture (Sports, Music)

o Impact expanding Black Media (Ebony, Jet)

o Impact of the Second Great Migration on Political Power in Northern Cities

• Impact of Brutal Murder of Emmett Till

o Unlike most murders of black men in the South, Till is gained national attention.

• “Master Narrative” vs. “Grassroots” impact on the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s

• Rosa Parks, who in December 1955, refused to give up a bus seat in the “whites only” section,

• Martin Luther King, Jr

▪ Role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott – 1955-1956

▪ Proposed to end segregation through passive civil disobedience.

▪ Drew on the philosophy and techniques of Mohandas Gandhi.

▪ Southern Christian Leadership Conference

o The 1954 landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas;

▪ Role of Earl Warren

▪ Role of Thurgood Marshall (African American attorney who was the NAACP’s chief counsel)

▪ Reversed the previous 1896 ruling of Plessy v. Ferguson when the Brown case said that “separate but equal” facilities were inherently unequal. Under the Brown case, schools were ordered integrated

o “Declaration of Constitutional Principles” (known informally as the Southern Manifesto)

o Little Rock’s Central High School and the Little Rock 9

▪ Orval Faubus, the governor of Arkansas

▪ President Eisenhower

o The 1957 Civil Rights Act

▪ The Civil Rights Act of 1957 was introduced in Eisenhower’s presidency and was the act that kick-started the civil rights legislative program that was to include the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act under LBJ

▪ Aimed to ensure that all African Americans could exercise their right to vote

▪ The final act became a much watered done affair due to the lack of support among the Southern Democrats.

o Sit-in movement in 1960

▪ Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee, or SNCC

5. The Cold War under “Ike” – Eisenhower’s 2^nd Term

• U.S.-Soviet Relations during the Second Term

o Context: Eisenhower agreed to a summit of Soviet and Western leaders in Geneva, Switzerland, in July 1955, the first such meeting since the Potsdam Conference in 1945

o During his second term office, Eisenhower hoped to build on “the "Spirit of Geneva" achieve a détente with the Soviet Union that could produce a treaty banning the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere and oceans

• Eisenhower Doctrine - 1957

o President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced the Eisenhower Doctrine in January 1957, and Congress approved it in March of the same year. Under the Eisenhower Doctrine, a country could request American economic assistance and/or aid from U.S. military forces if it was being threatened by armed aggression from another state.

o The Eisenhower Doctrine Address forever changed America’s relationship with the Middle East. In the aftermath of the Suez Crisis, President Dwight D. Eisenhower boldly declared that the United States would henceforth serve as the region’s “protector of freedom” against Communist aggression.

• Spending on national security was a phenomenon that served as an engine of postwar economic growth during the 1950s

• Military-Industrial Complex expands in the 1950s

o A relationship that developed between the military establishment and the defense industry

• Sputnik's Impact on America

o The satellite was silver in color, about the size of a beach ball, and weighed a mere 184 pounds. Yet for all its simplicity, small size, and inability to do more than orbit the Earth and transmit meaningless radio blips, the impact of Sputnik on the United States and the world was enormous and unprecedented

o At the time of the Sputnik "crisis," the White House, Central Intelligence Agency, Air Force, and a few highly select and trustworthy defense contractors were creating a spy satellite that was so secret that only a few dozen people knew of it. Even its name, CORONA, was deemed secret for many years. Instead of being concerned with winning the first round of the space race, Eisenhower and his National Security Council were much more interested in launching surveillance satellites that could tell American intelligence where every Soviet missile was located.

o Just when Americans were feeling self-confident and optimistic about the future, along came the crude, kerosene-powered Sputnik launch. The space race was under way, and the Soviets had won the first leg—the United States was unnerved

o There was a crisis of confidence in American technology, values, politics, and the military. Science, technology, and engineering were totally reworked and massively funded in the shadow of Sputnik. The Russian satellite essentially forced the United States to place a new national priority on research science, which led to the development of microelectronics—the technology used in today's laptop, personal, and handheld computers. Many essential technologies of modern life, including the Internet, owe their early development to the accelerated pace of applied research triggered by Sputnik

o Without Sputnik, it is all but certain that there would not have been a race to the moon, which became the centerpiece contest of the Cold War

• Congress created National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to coordinate research in rocket and space technology

• Congress to increase spending on teaching science and mathematics. The 1958 National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) gave $887 million in loads to needy college students and grants for the improvement of schools.

• Cuba - 1959

o In 1959, in Cuba, Fidel Castro overthrew U.S.-supported Fulgencio Batista, promptly denounced the Yankee imperialists, and began to take U.S. properties for a land-distribution program. When the U.S. cut off heavy U.S. imports of Cuban sugar, Castro confiscated more American property.

o United States Severs Diplomatic Relations with Cuba in January, 1961

• The Famous Kitchen Debate of 1959

o Vice President Richard Nixon and Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev engage in a heated debate about capitalism and communism in the middle of a model kitchen set up for the opening ceremony of the American National Exhibition in Moscow.

• Khrushchev’s Extended 1959 American Visit and Summit with Eisenhower

o In the fall of 1959, Nikita Khrushchev became the first Soviet premier to visit the United States

• "U-2 Incident" 1960

o On May 1, 1960, Francis Gary Powers, the pilot of an American U-2 spy plane, was shot down while flying though Soviet airspace.

o After extensive questioning by the KGB, Powers was convicted of spying and sentenced to three years in prison and seven more of hard labor.

o The fallout over the incident resulted in the cancellation of the Paris Summit scheduled to discuss the ongoing situation in divided Germany, the possibility of an arms control or test ban treaty, and the relaxation of tensions between the USSR and the United States

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