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Introduction to Recombinant DNA Technology

  • Overview of Advances

    • Since the early 2000s, biologists have significantly increased knowledge about genes directing development and behavior of organisms.

    • Technological advances have allowed fast sequencing of complete genomes, providing insights into numerous organisms.

History and Development

  • Breakthroughs in DNA Manipulation (1970s)

    • First successful isolation and modification of specific DNA pieces.

    • Development of recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering to alter genomes.

    • Resulted in a deeper understanding of how complex organisms develop from a single fertilized egg.

Applications

  • Medical Applications

    • Identification of mutations in genes linked to inherited disorders and common diseases (e.g., cancer).

    • Production of pharmaceuticals like insulin and clotting factors.

  • Non-Medical Applications

    • Forensic science for suspect identification or acquittal in criminal cases.

    • Enhancements in consumer products such as laundry detergents.

Genetic Engineering Techniques

  • Manipulating and Analyzing DNA

    • Historical context of human manipulation of DNA through selective breeding.

    • Complexity of isolating individual genes from large genomes.

Key Enzymes: Restriction Nucleases

  • Cut double-stranded DNA at specific sequences, allowing isolation of DNA fragments.

  • Bacterial strains produce unique restriction nucleases for different nucleotide sequences, enabling reproducibility in lab settings.

Gel Electrophoresis

  • Technique for Separating DNA Fragments

    • DNA mixtures are placed in agarose or polyacrylamide gels and subjected to an electric current; negatively charged DNA moves toward positive electrode.

    • Migration speed depends on fragment size—larger fragments move slower than smaller ones.

Visualization of DNA

  • Bands need to be stained or labeled (e.g., fluorescent dyes or radioactive labels) to be visualized.

  • Southern blotting is a method used to detect specific DNA sequences using labeled probes.

DNA Cloning in Bacteria

  • Definition

    • DNA cloning refers to producing multiple identical copies of a DNA sequence.

    • Amplification and isolation of specific DNA segments enable study of gene functions.

Steps in DNA Cloning

  1. Fragmentation

  • Break genome into manageable pieces using restriction enzymes.

  1. Production of Recombinant DNA

  • Join DNA fragments using DNA ligase to produce novel DNA combinations.

Plasmid Vectors in Cloning

  • Characteristics of Plasmids

    • Circular DNA molecules with origins of replication that allow for independent replication within bacterial cells.

    • Contain restriction enzyme sites for gene insertion, enabling DNA cloning.

Transforming Bacteria with Recombinant DNA

  • Transformation Process

    • Some bacteria naturally take up external DNA; laboratory strains can be induced for this.

    • Each division of bacterial cells results in replication of the recombinant DNA.

Recovery of DNA Fragments

  • Use of restriction enzymes to cut out DNA fragments from plasmids can recover desired DNA segments for analysis.

DNA Libraries

  • Concept of a DNA Library

    • Collection of cloned fragments representing an organism's genome.

    • Genomic libraries include a comprehensive range of DNA sequences; cDNA libraries focus on mRNA sequences for protein-coding genes.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

  • Description and Importance

    • PCR is a method for rapidly amplifying DNA sequences in vitro, bypassing traditional cloning methods.

    • Provides a sensitive means of detecting small quantities of DNA.

Applications of PCR

  • Forensic and Diagnostic Uses

    • Used to amplify DNA for identifying pathogens during infections or analyzing forensic evidence.

    • Generates DNA fingerprints for identification in criminal investigations.

Sequencing DNA

  • Sanger Sequencing Method

    • Uses chain-terminating nucleotides to generate fragments of varying lengths, determining the DNA sequence post-electrophoresis.

    • Fully automated sequencing techniques are now used for large-scale genome projects.

Conclusion

  • Impact of Recombinant DNA Technology

    • Revolutionized our understanding of genetics, cell biology, and applications in medicine and beyond.

    • Continues to offer valuable tools for both research and practical applications in various fields.