Anatomy & Physiology: Page-by-Page Notes
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- Chapter 01: The Sciences of Anatomy and Physiology
- Focus: Integrative approach to understanding structure (anatomy) and function (physiology)
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- Anatomy studies form/structure; Physiology studies how the body functions
- Form and function are interrelated; they are complementary and not fully separable
- Physiology gives meaning to anatomy; anatomy enables physiology
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- Scientific method: systematic process
- Steps: observation, hypothesis, experimentation, data collection, evaluate whether data support or modify hypothesis
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- Hippocrates: Father of medicine; Hippocratic Oath; advocated natural causes of disease
- Aristotle: Diseases had supernatural or physical causes; introduced terms physiologi (natural causes) and theologoi (supernatural causes); laid groundwork for linking structure and function
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- Metrodora: Early Greek physician and first woman to publish a medical textbook
- Claudius Galen: Physician to Roman gladiators; conducted animal dissections; viewed science as discovery through inquiry
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- Vesalius: Birth of modern Western medicine; De humani corporis fabrica (1543) atlas of anatomy
- Harvey: Birth of experimental physiology; demonstrated blood moves out of and returns to the heart
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- Microscopy expanded life visualization: Galileo, Marcello Malpighi, Robert Hooke, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek
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- Leeuwenhoek’s simple microscope achieved high magnification (≈200x); superior lens quality
- Observed blood, lake water, sperm, bacteria, etc.
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- Cell theory: Schleiden and Schwann concluded all organisms are composed of cells
- First tenet of cell theory; cellular basis for all body functions
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- Biomedical revolution: Germ theory, heredity mechanisms, DNA structure, medical imaging advances, genome mapping
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- Assumptions for simplicity in class:
- Reference male: 155\ \text{lbs}; XY; gene expression and hormone action
- Reference female: 125\ \text{lbs}; XX; gene expression and hormone action
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- Ignoring anatomical variations: No two humans are exactly alike
- Anatomy books show common organization; variations include missing muscles, vertebrae count, organ variations, situs inversus
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- Kidney and arterial variations:
- Normal, Pelvic kidney, Horseshoe kidney
- Variations in branches of the aorta
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- 1.4a Characteristics Common to Living Things (Part 1)
- Properties: Organization; Metabolism (Anabolism and Catabolism); Growth and development
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- 1.4a (Part 2)
- Responsiveness; Regulation and Homeostasis; Reproduction (with sex cells, can form new organisms)
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- 1.4b Levels of organization (from simplest to most complex):
- Chemical level (atoms, molecules, macromolecules) → Biological macromolecules (proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, lipids) → Organelles
- Cellular level (cells) → Tissue level → Organ level → Organ system level → Organismal level
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- Example components in the hierarchy:
- Macromolecules (DNA as example) and organelles (Golgi apparatus) within cells; tissues (epithelial, connective); organs (e.g., liver, stomach); organ systems (Digestive System); with a sample organ (small intestine) shown
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- 1.4c Introduction to Organ Systems: 11 organ systems
- Integumentary, Skeletal, Muscular, Nervous, Endocrine, Cardiovascular, Lymphatic, Respiratory, Urinary, Digestive, Reproductive
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- (a) Integumentary System: protects, reduces water loss, vitamin D synthesis, secretions, temperature regulation, sensory receptors
- (b) Skeletal System: support/protection; hematopoiesis; calcium/phosphorus storage; attachment sites for muscles/ligaments
- (c) Muscular System: movement; heat production
- (d) Nervous System: regulatory control; responsiveness; consciousness, memory
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- (e) Endocrine System: glands secreting hormones; regulate development, growth, metabolism, blood composition/volume, digestion, reproduction
- (f) Cardiovascular System: heart and vessels; distribute hormones, nutrients, gases; remove wastes
- (g) Lymphatic System: transports/filters lymph; immune response participation
- (h) Respiratory System: gas exchange (O2/CO2)
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- (i) Urinary System: filters blood; concentrates wastes; excretes urine
- (j) Digestive System: mechanical/chemical digestion; nutrient absorption; waste excretion
- (k) Reproductive System: gonads produce gametes and sex hormones
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- 1.5a Anatomic Position: standard reference position
- Key features: upright, feet parallel, limbs at sides, palms forward, head level, eyes forward
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- 1.5b Planes and sections: Section (actual cut) vs Plane (imaginary flat surface)
- Coronal (frontal): anterior vs posterior; Transverse (horizontal): superior vs inferior; Midsagittal: equal left/right halves; Sagittal: left/right of midline; Oblique: angle
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- 1.5b Planes (continued): Midsagittal, Sagittal, Oblique distinctions
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- (Figure 1.4) Anatomic Position and Body Planes depicted
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- 1.5c Anatomic Directions: terms used in opposing pairs (e.g., anterior/posterior; dorsal/ventral; proximal/distal)
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- 1.5d Regional Anatomy: two main regions
- Axial region (head, neck, trunk)
- Appendicular region (limbs)
- Note: numerous subregions within these two main areas
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- 1.5d Regional Terms (Anterior View): cephalic, frontal, orbital, nasal, etc.; upper extremity terms and hand terms
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- 1.5d Regional Terms (Posterior View): cervical, cranial, occipital, vertebral, lumbar, gluteal, perineal; lower limb terms
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- (a) Anterior view regional terms list continued
- (b) Posterior view regional terms list continued
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- Figures illustrating anterior and posterior regional terms; practical references for exam
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- 1.5e Body Cavities and Membranes: interior organs housed within body cavities; cavities grouped into posterior aspect and ventral cavity
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- Posterior aspect: encased in bone; subdivided into cranial cavity (brain) and vertebral canal (spinal cord)
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- Ventral cavity: larger; subdivided by thoracic diaphragm into superior thoracic cavity and inferior abdominopelvic cavity
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- Serous membranes: parietal layer lines body wall; visceral layer covers organs; serous cavities contain serous fluid to reduce friction
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- Ventral cavities illustrated: thoracic cavity with mediastinum, pericardial cavity, pleural cavities; abdominopelvic cavity with abdominal and pelvic compartments
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- Serous membranes can be visualized as a fist (organ) inside a balloon (serous membrane)
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- Thoracic cavity spaces: mediastinum contains heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, major vessels; pericardium (parietal and visceral layers) with pericardial cavity
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- Pleura: parietal (outer) and visceral (covering lungs); pleural cavity with serous fluid
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- Serous membranes in thoracic/abdominopelvic cavities shown in figures
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- Abdominopelvic spaces: abdominal cavity houses most digestive organs and kidneys; pelvic cavity contains distal large intestine, ureters, urinary bladder, internal reproductive organs
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- Peritoneum: parietal (lines cavity) and visceral (covers organs); peritoneal cavity contains serous fluid
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- Serous membranes in cavities summarized with figures
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- 1.5f Abdominopelvic Regions: nine compartments; examples: Umbilical (center), Epigastric (superior to umbilical), Hypogastric (inferior)
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- Regions continued: Right/Left hypochondriac, Right/Left lumbar, Right/Left iliac, Pubic
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- Abdominopelvic quadrants: four quadrants defined by transverse and midsagittal planes through the umbilicus
- Right/Left Upper Quadrants; Right/Left Lower Quadrants
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- 1.6 Homeostasis: keeping internal conditions stable
- Definition: ability to maintain a stable internal environment amidst changes
- Regulated by homeostatic systems employing negative and positive feedback
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- 1.6a Components of Homeostatic Systems: Receptor, Control Center, Effector
- Receptor detects changes; Control Center processes input; Effector carries out response
- Nervous system offers rapid responses; Endocrine system provides sustained responses
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- Diagram of homeostatic components: Receptor → Control Center → Effector; feedback loop maintains or alters the stimulus
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- 1.6b Negative Feedback: Most body processes; variable fluctuates around a set point; action opposite to stimulus
- Examples: blood glucose and temperature regulation
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- Negative feedback loop examples (blood glucose): pancreas releases glucagon when low; pancreas releases insulin when high; liver stores or releases glycogen accordingly
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- Graphs illustrate how the regulated variable changes over time under negative feedback dynamics
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- 1.6c Positive Feedback: Less common; stimulus amplified to continue in same direction until climactic event ends it
- Examples: breastfeeding, blood clotting, labor
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- Positive feedback loops: stepwise amplification leading to a climactic event (e.g., childbirth)
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- Positive feedback example: