Learning Chapter 5

Learning Chapter Overview

• What Is Learning?

  • Learning refers to a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of experience.

• Key Areas of Focus:

  • Classical Conditioning: Associating Stimuli

  • Operant Conditioning: Associating Behaviors and Consequences

  • Observational Learning: Imitating the Actions of Others

What Is Learning?

• Learning occurs in various settings, not just classrooms, and encompasses all ages.

• Conditioning: Process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses.

Classical Conditioning: Associating Stimuli

• Key Theme: Classical conditioning is about learning associations between stimuli.

Ivan Pavlov

• Discovered classical conditioning and its processes involving reflexive responses and the formation of associations.

Basic Concepts of Classical Conditioning

• Definition: A basic learning process involving repeated pairing of a neutral stimulus with a response-producing stimulus.

• Mechanism: The stimulus does not produce new behavior but causes an existing behavior to occur through association.

Principles of Conditioning

1. Before Conditioning:

   • Neutral Stimulus (NS): The metronome (no response).

   • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Dog food (elicits an Unconditioned Response (UCR) of salivation).

2. During Conditioning:

   • NS (metronome) paired immediately before UCS (food).

   • Result: UCR of salivation occurs.

3. After Conditioning:

   • NS becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and elicits a Conditioned Response (CR) of salivation even without food.

Classical Conditioning Terminology

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response.

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): An unlearned reflexive response to UCS.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after conditioning, elicits a reflexive response.

• Conditioned Response (CR): A learned reflexive response to CS.

Factors Affecting Conditioning

• Timing: Most effective when CS is presented just before UCS.

• Stimulus Generalization: Learned response occurs to similar stimuli.

• Stimulus Discrimination: Learned response is specific to a particular stimulus rather than similar stimuli.

Evolution, Biological Preparedness, and Conditioned Fears

• Humans are biologically prepared to develop fears of stimuli that posed threats historically.

• Evolved adaptations in the brain enhance sensitivities to particular stimuli like snakes and spiders.

Operant Conditioning: Associating Behaviors and Consequences

• Key Theme: Operant conditioning involves learning voluntary behaviors shaped by consequences.

Thorndike and the Law of Effect

• Thorndike studied how voluntary behaviors are influenced by consequences using trial and error.

• Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

B.F. Skinner's Contributions

• Focused on observable behavior and introduced the concept of operants.

• Developed the Skinner Box as a method to study behavior in controlled environments.

Reinforcement and Its Types

• Operant Conditioning Definition: Involves changing the probability of a response by manipulating consequences.

• Reinforcement: The process of increasing the likelihood of a behavior due to a stimulus or event following a response.

  • Positive Reinforcement: Addition of a rewarding stimulus to increase behavior.

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removal of an aversive stimulus to increase behavior.

Comparing Reinforcement Types

• Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement:

  • Positive: E.g., Studying leading to making the Dean's list.

  • Negative: E.g., Studying to avoid losing a scholarship.

Types of Reinforcers

• Primary Reinforcer: Naturally reinforcing (e.g., food, water).

• Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcer: Gains reinforcing value through association with primary reinforcers.

Punishment and Its Effects

• Definition of Punishment: Presentation or removal of a stimulus to decrease a behavior's occurrence.

• Positive Punishment: Addition of an aversive stimulus after a behavior.

• Negative Punishment: Removal of a reinforcing stimulus following a behavior.

Shaping and Maintaining Behavior

• New behaviors can be developed through shaping, which involves reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior.

• The Partial Reinforcement Effect states that behaviors conditioned using partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Different schedules of reinforcement can produce different patterns of behavior.

  • Fixed-ratio (FR), Variable-ratio (VR), Fixed-interval (FI), and Variable-interval (VI).

Applications of Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning principles can reduce problem behaviors and promote learning in various fields such as education, therapy, and workplace productivity.

Observational Learning

• Key Theme: Observational learning involves learning through observing the actions of others, as proposed by Albert Bandura.

Factors Influencing Imitation

• High social status of the model, past rewards for similar behaviors, and comfort levels with the situation can affect imitation.

Mirror Neurons

• The brain's hardwired capacity for imitation is linked to mirror neurons, which activate during both performing and observing actions.

Media Influence on Behaviors

• Observational learning can extend to media, influencing social behaviors positively or negatively (e.g., anti-drug campaigns).

Conclusion

• Learning involves various processes, including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning, each with distinct mechanisms and applications influencing behavior.