, Federal Court System
Trial Courts vs. Circuit Courts
Issues of Fact vs. Issues of Law
Trial courts handle both issues of fact and law.
Circuit courts primarily focus on questions of law.
Medical Malpractice Case Example
Scenario: A patient's family sued her doctor for alleged improper care.
Alleged Facts:
The patient, who worked with horses, cut her finger.
The cut became infected with flesh-eating bacteria from horse manure.
Later, a horse injury aggravated her condition.
The doctor treated the shoulder but ignored the infected finger (red and swollen).
The infection spread, causing sepsis, organ failure, and death.
The family claimed antibiotics would have saved her.
Important Point: These are allegations, not proven facts.
Role of the Trial Court
To determine the truth of the plaintiff's allegations.
A fact finder (judge or jury) listens to evidence and makes factual findings.
Example Factual Questions:
Was the finger infected?
Was it swollen when the doctor saw it?
Did the infection cause her death?
Appeals to the Circuit Court
The losing party can appeal, but the circuit court usually defers to the district court's factual findings.
This deference is due to the trial court being closer to the evidence (witness testimony, etc.).
Standard of Review: The level of deference varies for different issues.
Legal Issues for the Circuit Court
Even with factual questions resolved, legal issues remain.
Example Legal Questions:
Did the doctor violate the standard of care by not prescribing antibiotics?
How should the standard of care be defined (local vs. national)?
Is there a limit to the damages the doctor must pay?
Focus of Circuit Courts
Specialized in legal questions.
They ensure the district court correctly answered legal questions.
They provide written opinions setting legal standards for district courts within the circuit.
District court judges must follow circuit court precedents.
Courtroom Differences
Circuit courts lack witness stands and jury boxes because they don't handle factual evidence.
However, circuit courts typically have more judges present.
Circuit Court Composition
Appeals are typically heard by a panel of three judges.
Circuit courts vary in size (e.g., 6 judges in the First Circuit, 29 in the Ninth).
Judges for a panel are selected randomly.
Decisions are made by majority vote.
En Banc Proceedings
Important cases may be heard en banc (French for "on the bench").
This involves all circuit judges (except in the Ninth Circuit, where a subset serves).
The purpose is to maintain uniformity in circuit court decisions and resolve conflicts between different three-judge panels.
An en banc court can overrule a three-judge panel decision.
Without a contradicting en banc opinion, a three-judge panel opinion represents the entire circuit court.
The United States Supreme Court
The highest court in the federal judicial system, established by the Constitution.
Currently has nine justices, though the number is set by Congress, not the Constitution.
The number of justices has varied throughout history (e.g., six initially, up to ten).
The number has remained at nine since 1869.
Historical Context of Supreme Court Size
President Franklin Roosevelt's attempt to "pack the court" in 1937 by increasing its size to 15 justices to appoint justices more aligned with his political agenda.
Congress did not approve this plan.
Justice Owen Roberts may have switched his vote to support Roosevelt's policies to prevent the court-packing plan.
This move is called "the switch in time that saved nine".
Supreme Court's Appellate Role
The Supreme Court hears appeals from federal circuit courts and state courts (on issues of federal law, typically constitutional issues).
Unlike other appellate courts, the Supreme Court chooses which cases to hear.
Losing parties petition for certiorari, explaining why the case deserves the Court's attention.
If four justices agree, the case is heard by the full Supreme Court (sitting en banc).
The Supreme Court accepts only a small fraction of petitions (e.g., ~70 out of 6,000 in 2016, around 1%).
There are exceptions, such as lawsuits between states.
Three Levels of the Federal Judiciary
District Courts
Circuit Courts
U.S. Supreme Court
Article III Judges
Judges on these courts are called Article III judges due to Article III of the Constitution.
Article III grants them life tenure, ensuring they remain in office as long as they exhibit "good behavior." Their salaries cannot be reduced.
These protections insulate judges from political control.
Appointment of Federal Judges
Nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate.
Senators or House members of the President's party often recommend candidates.
The Senate Judiciary Committee holds confirmation hearings, followed by a full Senate vote.
Hierarchy Among Article III Judges
Despite life tenure, a hierarchy exists.
Supreme Court decisions are binding on all lower federal courts.
Even if a lower court disagrees, it must follow Supreme Court precedent.
District court judges must follow precedents from their own circuit courts.
Three-judge panels follow circuit precedent unless overruled by the Supreme Court or an en banc decision.
Distinguishing Precedent
Litigants and judges may argue that a prior decision doesn't apply to a new case.
This is called "distinguishing precedent".
Binding vs. Persuasive Precedent
Not all judicial opinions are binding precedent.
Circuit courts don't have to follow other circuit courts' precedents.
District courts only follow precedents from their own regional circuit court.
Other circuits' opinions can be persuasive, but are not mandatory.
Specialized Federal Courts
Special federal judges exist outside of the Article III courts.
Examples: U.S. Tax Court, Court of Federal Claims, Court of Military Appeals, and Administrative Law Judges.
For the purpose of this educational material the focus remains on the three levels of Article III courts.