Federal Court System

Trial Courts vs. Circuit Courts

Issues of Fact vs. Issues of Law

• Trial courts handle both issues of fact and law.
• Circuit courts primarily focus on questions of law.

Medical Malpractice Case Example

• Scenario: A patient's family sued her doctor for alleged improper care.
• Alleged Facts:
  • The patient, who worked with horses, cut her finger.
  • The cut became infected with flesh-eating bacteria from horse manure.
  • Later, a horse injury aggravated her condition.
  • The doctor treated the shoulder but ignored the infected finger (red and swollen).
  • The infection spread, causing sepsis, organ failure, and death.
  • The family claimed antibiotics would have saved her.
• Important Point: These are allegations, not proven facts.

Role of the Trial Court

• To determine the truth of the plaintiff's allegations.
• A fact finder (judge or jury) listens to evidence and makes factual findings.
• Example Factual Questions:
  • Was the finger infected?
  • Was it swollen when the doctor saw it?
  • Did the infection cause her death?

Appeals to the Circuit Court

• The losing party can appeal, but the circuit court usually defers to the district court's factual findings.
• This deference is due to the trial court being closer to the evidence (witness testimony, etc.).
• Standard of Review: The level of deference varies for different issues.

Legal Issues for the Circuit Court

• Even with factual questions resolved, legal issues remain.
• Example Legal Questions:
  • Did the doctor violate the standard of care by not prescribing antibiotics?
  • How should the standard of care be defined (local vs. national)?
  • Is there a limit to the damages the doctor must pay?

Focus of Circuit Courts

• Specialized in legal questions.
• They ensure the district court correctly answered legal questions.
• They provide written opinions setting legal standards for district courts within the circuit.
• District court judges must follow circuit court precedents.

Courtroom Differences

• Circuit courts lack witness stands and jury boxes because they don't handle factual evidence.
• However, circuit courts typically have more judges present.

Circuit Court Composition

• Appeals are typically heard by a panel of three judges.
• Circuit courts vary in size (e.g., 6 judges in the First Circuit, 29 in the Ninth).
• Judges for a panel are selected randomly.
• Decisions are made by majority vote.

En Banc Proceedings

• Important cases may be heard en banc (French for "on the bench").
• This involves all circuit judges (except in the Ninth Circuit, where a subset serves).
• The purpose is to maintain uniformity in circuit court decisions and resolve conflicts between different three-judge panels.
• An en banc court can overrule a three-judge panel decision.
• Without a contradicting en banc opinion, a three-judge panel opinion represents the entire circuit court.

The United States Supreme Court

• The highest court in the federal judicial system, established by the Constitution.
• Currently has nine justices, though the number is set by Congress, not the Constitution.
• The number of justices has varied throughout history (e.g., six initially, up to ten).
• The number has remained at nine since 1869.

Historical Context of Supreme Court Size

• President Franklin Roosevelt's attempt to "pack the court" in 1937 by increasing its size to 15 justices to appoint justices more aligned with his political agenda.
• Congress did not approve this plan.
• Justice Owen Roberts may have switched his vote to support Roosevelt's policies to prevent the court-packing plan.
• This move is called "the switch in time that saved nine".

Supreme Court's Appellate Role

• The Supreme Court hears appeals from federal circuit courts and state courts (on issues of federal law, typically constitutional issues).
• Unlike other appellate courts, the Supreme Court chooses which cases to hear.
• Losing parties petition for certiorari, explaining why the case deserves the Court's attention.
• If four justices agree, the case is heard by the full Supreme Court (sitting en banc).
• The Supreme Court accepts only a small fraction of petitions (e.g., ~70 out of 6,000 in 2016, around 1%).
• There are exceptions, such as lawsuits between states.

Three Levels of the Federal Judiciary

• District Courts
• Circuit Courts
• U.S. Supreme Court

Article III Judges

• Judges on these courts are called Article III judges due to Article III of the Constitution.
• Article III grants them life tenure, ensuring they remain in office as long as they exhibit "good behavior." Their salaries cannot be reduced.
• These protections insulate judges from political control.

Appointment of Federal Judges

• Nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate.
• Senators or House members of the President's party often recommend candidates.
• The Senate Judiciary Committee holds confirmation hearings, followed by a full Senate vote.

Hierarchy Among Article III Judges

• Despite life tenure, a hierarchy exists.
• Supreme Court decisions are binding on all lower federal courts.
• Even if a lower court disagrees, it must follow Supreme Court precedent.
• District court judges must follow precedents from their own circuit courts.
• Three-judge panels follow circuit precedent unless overruled by the Supreme Court or an en banc decision.

Distinguishing Precedent

• Litigants and judges may argue that a prior decision doesn't apply to a new case.
• This is called "distinguishing precedent".

Binding vs. Persuasive Precedent

• Not all judicial opinions are binding precedent.
• Circuit courts don't have to follow other circuit courts' precedents.
• District courts only follow precedents from their own regional circuit court.
• Other circuits' opinions can be persuasive, but are not mandatory.

Specialized Federal Courts

• Special federal judges exist outside of the Article III courts.
• Examples: U.S. Tax Court, Court of Federal Claims, Court of Military Appeals, and Administrative Law Judges.
• For the purpose of this educational material the focus remains on the three levels of Article III courts.