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General Chemistry
Page 1: Introduction to Bonding and Ionic Compounds
Bonding refers to the attractive forces that hold atoms together in compounds.
Ionic compounds result from the transfer of electrons between atoms, leading to the formation of ions.
Naming conventions are important when dealing with ionic compounds.
Page 2: Chemical Formulas
A chemical formula indicates the composition of a substance, showing the elements present and their ratios.
Examples of chemical formulas:
Monatomic molecules: He, Au, Na
Diatomic molecules: O2, H2, Cl2
Polyatomic molecules: O3, S4, P8
Compounds: H2O, CH3COCH3
Compounds consist of two or more different elements in a fixed proportion.
Page 3: Chemical Formulas of Compounds
Molecules and their compositions:
HCl: 1 H atom & 1 Cl atom
H2O: 2 H atoms & 1 O atom
NH3: 1 N atom & 3 H atoms
C3H8: 3 C atoms & 8 H atoms
Ca(OH)2: 1 Ca atom, 2 O atoms & 2 H atoms
Page 4: Law of Definite Proportions
Compounds with identical types and number of atoms arranged in the same manner are considered the same molecule.
This principle is also known as the Law of Definite Proportions or Law of Constant Composition.
Page 5: Names and Formulas of Some Ionic Compounds
Understanding compound naming through Table 2-1 is essential for knowledge of various molecular compounds.
Page 6: Exercises on Ionic Compounds
Example exercises:
Formula of nitric acid: HNO3
Formula of sulfur trioxide: SO3
Name of FeBr3: iron(III) bromide.
Page 7: More Exercises on Ionic Compounds
Example exercises:
Name of K2SO3: potassium sulfite.
Charge on sulfite ion (SO3^2-): -2.
Formula of ammonium sulfide: (NH4)2S.
Page 8: Ammonium Compounds
Charge on the ammonium ion: NH4^+ (+1).
Formula of aluminum sulfate: Al2(SO4)3.
Charges on latter ions: Al^3+ and SO4^2-.
Page 9: Ions and Ionic Compounds
Definition of ions: Atoms or groups of atoms with an electric charge formed by the gain or loss of electrons.
Two main types of ions:
Cations (positive ions): Na+, Ca^2+, Al^3+, NH4^+ (polyatomic).
Anions (negative ions): F^-, O^2-, N^3-, SO4^2-, PO4^3- (polyatomic).
Page 10: Chemical Bonds
Chemical bonds hold atoms together within compounds.
Typically, the outermost or valence shell electrons are involved in bonding.
Page 11: Types of Chemical Bonds
Ionic Bonding: Formed through electrostatic attractions among ions when electrons are transferred.
Covalent Bonding: Involves the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between atoms.
Page 12: Example of Ionic Compounds
Sodium chloride (NaCl) as a common ionic compound, consisting of Na^+ and Cl^- ions.
Page 13: Formulas of Ionic Compounds
Determination of formulas based on charges of cations and anions.
NaCl: sodium chloride (Na^1+ & Cl^1-).
KOH: potassium hydroxide (K^1+ & OH^1-).
CaSO4: calcium sulfate (Ca^2+ & SO4^2-).
Al(OH)3: aluminum hydroxide (Al^3+ & 3OH^1-).
Page 14: Naming Inorganic Compounds
Binary Compounds: Consists of two elements.
Metal + Nonmetal = Ionic Compound.
Nonmetal + Nonmetal = Covalent Compound.
Naming rules:
Name the more metallic element first.
Name the less metallic element with the suffix "-ide".
Page 15: Nonmetal Stems for Naming
Stems for nonmetals in naming:
Boron: bor
Carbon: carb
Silicon: silic
Nitrogen: nitr
Phosphorus: phosph
Arsenic: arsen
Antimony: antimon
Page 16: More Nonmetal Stems
Stems for naming:
Oxygen: ox
Sulfur: sulf
Selenium: selen
Tellurium: tellur
Hydrogen: hydr.
Page 17: Halogens' Naming Stems
Naming stems for halogens:
Fluorine: fluor
Chlorine: chlor
Bromine: brom
Iodine: iod.
Page 18: Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
Rules for binary ionic compounds:
Cation names first, then anion.
Example: LiBr is named lithium bromide.
Examples of other compounds: MgCl2 (magnesium chloride), Li2S (lithium sulfide), Al2O3 (aluminum oxide).
Page 19: Continuing with Binary Compounds
More examples of binary ionic compounds and their names:
LiBr: lithium bromide
MgCl2: magnesium chloride
Li2S: lithium sulfide.
Page 20: More Ionic Compounds and Nomenclature
Additional examples summarized:
Al2O3: aluminum oxide
Na3P: sodium phosphide
Mg3N2: magnesium nitride.
Notable point: compounds with metals of one oxidation state avoid using prefixes or Roman numerals.
Page 21: Metals with Variable Oxidation States
Certain metals exhibit variable oxidation states (e.g., transition metals), affecting how they're named.
Page 22: Methods of Naming for Variable Oxidation States
Two naming methods:
Older System: uses suffixes "-ic" (higher oxidation) and "-ous" (lower oxidation).
Modern System: uses Roman numerals indicating oxidation states.
Page 23: Examples of Naming Methods
Examples of the old and modern naming systems:
FeBr2: ferrous bromide (old) / iron(II) bromide (modern).
FeBr3: ferric bromide (old) / iron(III) bromide (modern).
Page 24: Continued Examples of Naming
Other compounds and their naming examples:
SnO: stannous oxide / tin(II) oxide.
SnO2: stannic oxide / tin(IV) oxide.
TiCl2: titanous chloride / titanium(II) chloride.
Page 25: Repetition of Naming Examples
Further repetition of compound names to solidify knowledge:
FeBr2, FeBr3, SnO, SnO2, TiCl2, TiCl3, TiCl4 and their modern equivalents.
Page 26: Summary of Naming in Various Systems
Understanding naming conventions in binary ionic compounds with variable oxidation states is crucial.
Page 27: Concluding Naming Systems
Reinforcement of naming systems and importance of recognizing oxidation states.
Page 28: Important Ions
Memorization of common ions from Table 6-6, e.g., hydroxide (OH^-), ammonium (NH4^+).
Page 29: Pseudobinary Ionic Compounds
Binary compounds can also be formed by certain polyatomic ions.
Examples: KOH (potassium hydroxide), Ba(OH)2 (barium hydroxide).
Page 30: Naming Pseudobinary Compounds
More examples of pseudobinary ionic compounds continued:
Al(OH)3 (aluminum hydroxide), Fe(OH)2 (iron(II) hydroxide).
Page 31: Pseudobinary Compounds Continued
More examples provided:
Fe(OH)3 (iron(III) hydroxide), Ba(CN)2 (barium cyanide).
Page 32: Compounding Pseudobinary Compounds
Add to knowledge of pseudobinary compounds with (NH4)2S (ammonium sulfide) and NH4CN (ammonium cyanide).
Page 33: Binary Acids
Binary acids consist of hydrogen and a nonmetal, typically in gaseous form at room temperature.
Nomenclature: use "hydro(stem)ic acid" for aqueous solutions.
Page 34: Examples of Binary Acids
Chemical to name conversions in binary acids:
HF: hydrogen fluoride/hydrofluoric acid
HCl: hydrogen chloride/hydrochloric acid
HBr: hydrogen bromide/hydrobromic acid
H2S: hydrogen sulfide/hydrosulfuric acid.
Page 35: Lewis Dot Formulas
Lewis dot formulas show valence electrons, which are crucial for tracking chemical bonding.
Chemical importance is attached to the outermost electron shells.
Page 36: Examples of Lewis Dot Structures
Representation for various elements (Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne) showing their valence electron arrangements.
Page 37: Continuation of Lewis Dot Structures
Effects of periodic groupings related to Lewis structures shown for elements.
Page 38: Formation of Ionic Compounds
Understanding ion formation (cations and anions).
Key role in ionic bonding.
Page 39: Monatomic Ions
Monatomic ions consist of individual atoms as either cations (Na+, Ca2+, Al3+) or anions (Cl-, O2-, N3-).
Page 40: Polyatomic Ions
Polyatomic ions consist of multiple atoms bonded together (e.g., NH4^+, SO4^2-).
Page 41: Formation of Ionic Bonds
Attraction of cations to anions leads to the formation of ionic compounds, often through metal-nonmetal reactions.
Page 42: Key Ionic Reactions
Example: Reactions between Group IA metals and Group VIIA nonmetals.
Page 43: Example Reaction - Li + F
Example provided with reaction products.
Page 44: Explanation of Reaction Products
Discussion on properties of products formed during ionic reactions, including solids and gases at different states.
Page 45: Underlying Reason for Ionic Bonds
Explanation of how electron configurations lead to ionic compound formation, represented through Lewis dot diagrams.
Page 46: Isoelectronic Species
Isoelectronic ions share electron configurations with noble gases, which sheds light on their chemical behavior.
Page 47: Example of K + Br Reaction
Example reaction listed, emphasizing the use of Lewis dot structure in the representation of ionic formation.
Page 48: General Trends in Ionic Compound Formation
Patterns observed in isoelectronic trends among cations and anions.
Page 49: IA and VIIA Reactions
General reaction pattern among IA metals and VIIA nonmetals.
Page 50: Example Reaction of K with Br
Sample reaction provided, emphasizing ion formation and product representation.
Page 51: Lewis Dot Representation of K & Br
Request for students to draw Lewis dot representations.
Page 52: General Trend: Isoelectronic
Trend description indicating that cations align with noble gas configurations preceding them, while anions align with following noble gases.
Page 53: Generic Reaction of Metals & Nonmetals
Generalized reaction formula summarizing typical interactions between group metals and halogens.
Page 54: IIa Metals and VIIA Nonmetals
Note on exceptions in behavior for certain metal/nonmetal pairings, with specific example provided.
Page 55: Formation Reaction of Be and F
Reaction format shared—draw representations for understanding.
Page 56: Representation for Other IIa and VIIA Metals and Nonmetals
General formula given to outline trends in reactions of these elements.
Page 57: Reaction of IA and VIA Nonmetals
Example reiterated of lithium's interaction with oxygen.
Page 58: O and Li Electronic Representation
Request for drawing ion configurations along with Lewis dot representational understanding.
Page 59: Representing IA and VIA Interactions
Summation of general reactions and Lewis dot representations expected.
Page 60: IIA Metals and VA Nonmetals
Example reaction shared to cement understanding of compound formation.
Page 61: Electronic Representation of Ca and N
Engage students in practice through representation and reaction incorporation.
Page 62: General Trends in IIa and VA Interactions
Sample representation provided concerning forming standard ionic compounds from respective groups.
Page 63: Overview of Compounding Patterns
Summary table for types and general formulas of ionic compounds from varying group pairings.
Page 64: Contributions of Hydrogen in Ionic Compounds
Notation of hydrogen as a capable element in ionic bonding despite being a nonmetal.
Page 65: Structure of Ionic Compounds
Description of 3D arrays in ionic compounds providing stability and strength, ensuring high melting points.
Page 66: Coulomb's Law Applications
Introduction to Coulomb’s Law alongside attractive forces and their behaviors in ionic bond formations.
Page 67: Trends & Comparative Behaviors
Comparing ionic sizes and charges, guiding factual recall and analysis.
