IB History Paper 2 - Early Modern states (1450 - 1789) (Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire)
Established states: Inca Empire (1438 – 1533, 1572)
Origins
Descendants of populations living in plateaus of Lake Titicaca basin.
Highly influenced by Pre-columbian cultures such as Chavin, Moche, Paracas, Nazca and Tiahuanaco
Before Pachacutec, the Inca inhabited a small area. His expansion policy transformed the Incas from a town to an empire.
Extension
Greatest expansion during Pachacutec’s reign.
Divided in four suyus (quarters) for easy management.
Chinchaysuyu (North), Cuntisuyu (West), Collasuyu (South), Antisuyu (East)
When the Spaniards arrived, the Inca Empire extended through most of the South American Pacific coastline. It was the largest empire in South America
Achievements
Outstanding organization and administrative policies - The Inca Empire never faced famine since crops were stored in common warehouses.
Engineering marvels - construction of structures such as aqueducts provided widespread access to work and andenes, an agricultural terrace which enhanced irrigation to crops.
Additionally, the Inca constructed earthquake-resistant buildings through advanced stonework methods.
Ingenious expansion policy which appealed to coexistence before using force.
Government and religion
Monarchy which was maintained through intra marriage.
The Sapa Inca, king-like leader, could have multiple wives. However, the heir to the throne needed to be the son of the Coya, the first and ‘official’ wife’
Polytheist religion - deities were closely linked to natural elements and phenomena. The most important god was Viracocha, the genderless creator of everything.
Other relevant deities include: Inti (God of the sun), Mama Quilla (Goddess of the Moon), Illapa (God of War), Pachamama (Goddess of Earth) and Supay (God of the death and ruler of the underworld (Uca Pacha).
State towards the 16th century (1500s)
Inca Civil War (1532)
After Huayna Capac’s death in 1525 as well as the death of the named successor, there was a power vacuum.
The throne was contested by Atahualpa and Huascar, both legitimate sons who belonged to different camps (Quito vs Cuzco, respectively).
The conflict escalated to a military conflict, which had Atahualpa as the victor.
Discontent of colonised populations/tribes
Some areas were in constant rebellion. For instance, on-going uprisings in Ecuador motivated the creation of another northern capital: Quito
This made it possible for Spaniard to form alliances, which meant enlarging their army as well as getting insight.
Taxation in the Incan Empire unpopular.
Taxes were extracted through Mita (or Mit’a) mandatory labour which was use to collect tax revenue as well as build projects (e.g. bridges, road networks)
⅔ of what workers produced was destined to taxes. There was little option of social mobility.
The nobility was exempted from taxes and hard labour.
New state: Viceroyalty of Peru (est. 1542) (administered by Spanish Empire)
Origins
Prior to 1492, Spain was not a unified country but a conjunction of autonomous kingdoms which included: Castile, Navarre, Aragon and Granada, the last Muslim bastion.
In the 15th century, Aragon was a prosperous region with political stability. This enabled commercial and territorial expansion in the Mediterranean.
On the other hand, Castile suffered from political turmoil and instability caused by a noble class which wanted to gain greater political power.
1469: The Catholic Monarchs (Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon) marry. Their kingdoms’ thrones were not unified upon marriage but both reigned as co-monarch.
This ‘dynatic union’ established the base for the Spanish Empire.
The monarchs inherited a culturally diverse kingdom. Christians, Jews and Muslim peacefully coexisted, there were marked ethnic variations and Spanish (or Castilian) was not the lingua franca.
Extension
Through marriage of Spanish monarchs, they unified the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. Upon the Reconquista in 1492, the kingdom of Granada was incorporated.
By the 16th century, non-American territories included the Balearic Islands, Sardinia and Sicily through Aragonese expansion and the Canary Islands, through Castilian conquest.
Acquisition of new territory in the Americas was limited by the Treaty of Tordesillas (1497), which stated how New World discoveries would be divided between the Spanish and Portuguese crown.
Achievements
1492: Reconquista and defeat of Muslim rule in Peninsula.
The monarchs believed this was their greatest achievement.
1492: Queen Isabella supported and authorised Christopher Columbus’ expedition to find a new route to Asia. Although this expedition did not meet its intended aim, it opened an opportunity to create a rich empire.
However, the discovery of America was overlooked by the Monarchs as they did not predict the profitability the territories would bring.
Through alliances through marriage, the Spanish monarchs ruled the largest empire in Western Europe through 1479 – 1517.
Government and Religion
Monarchy which also recognized autonomy of towns and cities
State religion is Catholicism. Forced conversions or expulsion of Jews and Muslims in an attempt to ‘make religion the basis for a shared national identity.’
State towards the 16th century (1500s)
Desire to expand overseas trade to compete with Portuguese expansion and minimise loss of dominion in Mediterranean trade to the Ottoman empire.
Formation of a new national identity through a ‘militant Christianity’ which is capable of combating ‘threats’ of Muslim and Jewish presence in the name of Christendom.
However, given there were marked cultural and ethnic divisions, the incorporation of new territories helped create a new national identity by recognizing differences with local people. (e.g. how someone from Sicily differentiates from a Spaniard)
through the influx of new people, which minimised the differences
Military experience from recent success in Reconquista (1492).
Reasons for changes in political structures/organization
Initially, conquistadores ventured into the New World. These expeditions were both self-financed or received financial aid from the Crown, who normally aimed to spread their control to these new territories.
At first the Crown did not think American territories to be a valuable asset until the discovery of precious metals, especially gold.
Conquistadors and any other adventurer who found new territories were granted governorships.
For instance, Francisco Pizarro received the title of ‘Governor of Peru’ after an audience with the monarchs in 1529.
This model was later abandoned for royal officials given its fragility. The Crown encounter issues such as:
Not receiving seized goods although it was stipulated in the Sietes Partidas (1252)
For instance, when Atahualpa offered a room of gold and silver, this ransom booty by law belonged to the King. However, Pizarro only sent a fifth to the Crown.
Political turmoil and internal fight between Spanish settlers.
Since most conquistadors aimed to amass wealth from their expeditions, they were unlikely to comply with the Crown. Therefore, the King needed a trustworthy representative to act on his behalf.
Domestic policies
Religious policy
Papal Bull (Dum Diversas) - issued by Pope Nicholas V in 1452 authorised colonisation and submission.
“To subdue saracens, pagans and other unbelievers to Christ [...] transfer for ever their territory to the Portuguese Crown”
This bull effectively called for a Christian doctrine which supported (and encouraged) expedition trips, discoveries, emigration and colonisation in the name of God.
Economic policy
The crown demanded part of seized goods, a practice which was established before America was discovered through the Sietes Partidas (1252), a set of ‘normative rules for the Kingdom’
Political policies
The 1492 Decree expelled all non-Christian (Jews and Muslims) from the Iberian peninsula or otherwise demanded conversion to Christianity.
This aimed to create a unified national identity. Potential heresy was repressed through the Inquisition but at large, it was an institution to ‘perpetuate imperialism’ and ‘suppress natural development of government’ in Spain and abroad, especially the American colonies.
The King of Spain after authorising conquistadors expeditions, assumed new territories were claimed in the name of the Crown. For the new territories, this also meant
The empire or country was automatically part of the kingdom of Spain.
Revenues from new territories would flow into ‘home treasury’
Tributes from colonies ‘contributed to the support of the home government’
Treatment of subjects
New social order
The Spanish crown was primarily concerned with obtaining lucrative profits from American colonies, collected from all subjects.
Introduction of a caste system, which divided habitants due their ethnicity and indicated the taxation they were obliged to pay.
Peninsulares: Born in Spain; could hold highest ranking in colonial institutions
Creoles: Descendants of Spaniards (Peninsulares). Despite ethnic and cultural origin, they could not assume leadership of colonial institutions.
Mestizos: descendants of Spaniards (or Europeans) and Indigenous.
Indigenous/Mulattoes: native populations present prior to the arrival of Spaniards. Subject to forced labour.
Mulattoes, descendants of Spaniards and Africans. By law, the child inherited the status of the mother, so a mulatto could be born into slavery.
Africans: Slaves; performed forced labour.
Inca nobility
Recognised by Spanish authorities in the form of caciques, a hereditary native nobility.
Caciques were in charge of the civil and criminal jurisdiction over their subjects under the supervision of Spanish authorities.
Privileges: exempted from paying tribute and forced labour and the right to have their cases tried by the audiencias, bypassing corregidores, their immediate superiors. Likewise, they were entitled to honours similar to those of hidalgos of Castile.
Indigenous people
Encomienda
Subject to forced labour and high taxation mainly through the encomienda system, which promised guardianship in exchange for labour.
In reality this system did not grant them anything of the promise. While natives tributed in the Empire, they received protection and food security as all collected crops were stored in a warehouse.
Now, they had virtually no rights and all surplus was destined to purchase goods from overseas as well as African slaves.
Extirpacion de idolatrias
A series of campaigns which aimed to force conversion. With the support of the Church and colonial authorities, it was a system based on baseless accusations.
These campaigns consisted in a group of various institutions (School Of Caciques, reductions of priests) which would instil European and Christian values within Indigenous populations.
For instance, the School of caciques aimed to teach descendants of nobility in order to guarantee alliance to the crown and knowledge of the administrative schemes of the viceroyalty.
The most common practice or institutions were the ‘visits’ (vistas) made by a visitador de idolatrias (appointed by the archbishop of Lima), a notary and prosecutor.
This group normally travelled to towns, encouraging people to denounce ancient rites that were taking place. Those denouncing could make an anonymous claim and would be exempt from punishment.
The accused would normally be interrogated and tortured if they did not confess their crimes. These procedures were carried out based on claims with little or no evidence.
Moreover, most natives did not speak Spanish. Even if the declaration were made by an interpreter, this was normally vulnerable to misunderstandings and fabrications.
Reducciones
Resettlement program started in 1570 under viceroy Francisco de Toledo.
The aim of this program was to move native populations to Spanish-style towns, in order to be surveilled by civil authorities and parish priests.
This program displaced at least 1.5 million people and was possible due to Toledo’s extraordinary organisational skills.
This was also a way to uproot from their ancestral home, therefore disconnecting with identity. It was also a way to instil European and Christian values on native daily life.
Peninsulares and criollos
Faced persecution through the Inquisition (est. 1572), an institution which much like the extirpaciones, was based on denunciations without evidence.
The end goal was not correcting ‘Un-Christian’ behaviours
In many instances, sentences included seizing wealth and property, therefore the institution was seen as a tool of control.
Francisco Pizarro (b. 1478 – d. 1541)
Nature of rule
By the time he embarked to Peru he was a wealthy landowner in Panama and had 30 years of experience fighting indigenous populations (part owner of gold mine, encomienda of 150 native, labour and tribute)
Legitimacy - awarded the title of Governor of Peru and exclusive permission to colonise the new found American territories after an audience with the Crown in 1529. These conditions were stipulated in the Capitulación de Toledo (1529).
Ambition and achievements
Born poor and illegitimate - His only way to ascend socially was by amassing personal wealth.
Success and failures
Conqueror of the Inca Empire - displayed effective organisational skills. Founded and designed major cities such as Jauja, the first capital city and Lima.
Achieved recognition despite not having ‘family pedigree.’ - He was awarded distinction such as Marquis of His Majesty’s Kingdom of New Castile.
His mistreatment and unfair negotiation caused fallout with conquest partners, including Diego de Almagro. This would lead to resentment and political turmoil. He could never fully exert his role as ‘Governor of Peru’ and ultimately concluded in his assassination.
On the other hand, he never materialised his vision of establishing a Pizarro dynasty to rule the American colonies. This was partly due to his mistreatment which caused resentment and his unpopular ambitious and cruel brothers. However, this vision was almost impossible since the Spanish crown expected him to rule on their behalf
Manco Inca (b.1515 – d.1545)
Nature of rule
Born into Inca nobility - Last male descendant of Huayna Capac, and allied with the Huascar-Cusco camp.
Legitimacy - Crowned by Pizarro in 1533 at the age of 17.
Although he was a legitimate ruler by birth, he was a puppet leader in the Spanaird’s eyes.
Ambition and achievements
Initially, Manco Inca aimed to restore the Huascar-Cusco camp to power through the help of Diego de Almagro. However, when he realised conquistadors were not reliable, he called a rebellion.
Military genius who defied Spanish military superiority through:
Two successful sieges in Lima and Cuzco
Complex battlefield structure; different strategists led their own legions.
Campaign on terror and guerrilla-style attacks to encomenderos and burning of sieged cities
Success and failures
His military action successfully deterred the establishment of Spanish dominion.
Additionally he forced the Spanish to negotiate with him in order to cease the sieges.
Although he never restored Incan rule, his rebellion and fierce display of power prolonged resistance until 1572, when his son Tupac Amaru I was executed by colonial authorities.
Political reasons
Spread Inca culture and identity - Newly conquered populations were not immediately forced to adopt Inca customs but they were slowly persuaded by Mitmakonas.
Mitmaqkuna or Mitimas - a policy of forced migration where whole tribes would move to recently conquered areas.
This was done as a measure of state security, guaranteeing royalty to the Sapa Inca and spreading Inca culture.
Economic reasons
Constant search for skills and organisation methods - the Inca road system (or Qhapaq Ñan), for instance, was based on Wari road systems. In the Northern territories, Chimu people were recognized for their metallurgy skills
Political organization
Inca society was based on a redistributive economy, meaning inhabitants paid great tribute in exchange for safety and security. Social mobility therefore was rare.
The noble class normally held all political power, which was divided in:
Sapa Inca: powerful head of state who oversaw civil, military and religious power. His position was hereditary and was backed through divine right.
Capac Incas: nobles that could trace ancestry to Manco Capac, mythological founder of the empire. They ensured Sapa Inca’s orders were carried out.
Hahua Incas: nobles who rose to power by showing devotion. They were in charge of planning, organising and managing large groups of citizens.
Apus: regional leaders or heads of state of each quarter of the empire (tawantinsuyu). Enforce peace, collect taxes and look after the well being of citizens.
Curacas: former leaders of conquered cultures who collected taxes and oversaw work progress. Lowest ranking nobility and an inherited title.
Neither Noble nor Commoner: skilled workers (e.g. stone masons, architects and engineers) who did commissioned work for the Sapa Inca.
Religion and state
Sapa Inca was the head of religious power - His role was justified through the ‘divine right’ as he was believed to be a direct descendant of Inti (God of the Sun).
Since it was primarily an agricultural state, most deities had a natural function. Festivities and rites would mark the start of harvest season.
Political reasons
The Spanish monarchs hoped to establish an empire and trade capable of competing with the Portuguese.
The Portuguese successfully financed expeditions and established lucrative trading routes within the African coastlines by the 1480s.
The rise of the Ottoman Empire made Spain lose its dominion in Mediterranean trade, which was profitable due to products coming from Asia.
Economic reasons
Rise of a capitalist system in Europe meant gold and other precious metals were in great demand.
Despite sizable wealth coming from the Americas, the new empire had to finance territorial expansion in Europe and campaigns to fight opposition. Spain needed to borrow from private banking to cover the cost and by 1557, it dedicated ⅔ of state revenue to pay its debt.
The mineral revenue from the Americas became the empire's primary source of revenue. Also, American wealth ‘ensured that private banking houses would continue to extend credit to the empire’
Political organization
Viceroy, appointed by the King and its representative on American territories.
Became head of state, replacing the Sapa Inca, a hereditary position legitimised by divine right (sons of Inti)
Colonial institutions characterised by bureaucracy and legal hurdles. The Spanish American colony was composed by:
Spanish king: Created power structure to help him rule over the colonies.
Council of the Indies (est. 1524): Highest administrative, legislative, occasional court and advisory body in colonies. Governed from Spain.
Viceroy: Governor and representative of the Spanish king overseas. Filled administrative functions
Audiencia (High Courts): Appointed to oversee judicial matters and granted additional administrative function to limit power of viceroys.
Religion and the state
During the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, the Pope granted the monarchy the right of royal patronage (patronato real) over the Church, which meant kings could appoint clergy and collect Church revenues. In return, the crown was required to finance construction of Churches.
In the American colonies, the royal patronage gave the crown a chance to check on colonial authorities, since they could appoint members that would serve the king’s interest.
Campaign of terror
Methods - shock and awe, blitzkrieg campaign, mutilation or burning alive
Goal - force indigenous people to comply with Spanish demands normally extracting gold or forcing habitants to join their fight.
This process was not unique, as Cortes had used it the conquest of the Aztec Empire but Pizarro was more brutal (7,000 vs 3,000)
Effect: “displays to sow terror throughout the local population.” Pizarro’s aim was not to exterminate but control natives.
Use of ‘legal procedures’
Methods - made-up committee consisting of legal advisors, conquistadors and clergymen deliberated and reached a sentence.
Goal - justify executions and prevent opposition.
The first and most famous was the execution of Atahualpa in July 1533, on the grounds he organised a rebellion.
Tupac Amaru, son of Manco Inca and last claimant to the Inca throne, was also executed by Spanish authorities in 1572 on the grounds he was the ruler of a rebel state and he enabled ‘heathen religious practices’.
Effect: This effectively ended Inca rule and prevent potential indigenous uprisings.
It is worth mentioning that although lawyers were barred from participating in expeditions (as written in the Capitulación de Toledo (1529)) many made their way to the South. This was presumably because the King wanted to avoid ‘perceived negative effects of Spanish litigations.’
The Inca Rebellion
Launched 1533 by Manco Inca prevented conquistadors from seizing complete power and resources from the Inca Empire
The rebellion aggravated the lack of dominion the Spanish had. In reality, they controlled only a handful of cities: North: Quito, Tumbez, San Miguel, Cajamarca; Center: Jauja and Lima; South: Cusco
Despite its advancement in military equipment, Spaniards created a methodical albeit brutal counterinsurgency campaign, which consistent in:
Terror campaigns: spearing inhabitants, torching houses and setting fire to their field. Mass killings of civilians aimed to discourage resistance fighters from carrying out their own terror campaigns.
Moreover, the counterinsurgency measures also motivated the surrender of skilled Inca general Tiso.
Pizarro also received reinforcement troops from abroad, since Spaniards were outnumbered.
Political turmoil and internal fights within conquistadors
This situation not only made it impossible for governors to rule (such as Pizarro) but also concerned the Spanish crown, which could not establish an efficient overseas government.
King Charles V sends Blasco Nuñez Vela as the first viceroy, however, he is executed by Gonzalo Pizarro.
As the only living member who took part in the Conquest of the Inca Empire, he refused to be ruled over and to concede power to the Crown.
Battle of Jaquijahuna (1548)
Pedro de la Gasca is sent as a new viceroy. He soon raises and army and defeats Pizarro on the battlefield.
Gonzalo Pizarro is defeated, executed and exhibited as a traitor. Most of Pizarro’s troops changed allegiance after de la Gasca offered pardons.
The Inca Rebellion
At the age of 17, Manco Inca, last descendant of Huayna Capac was crowned by the Spaniards as a puppet king.
Initially, Manco Inca allied with Almagro in hopes of securing power but upon reports by high priest Villac Umu (who had accompanied Almagro on an expedition to conquer land in the South) which illustrated the Spaniard’s brutality and ambition for gold.
Manco Inca soon realised the Conquistadors true motivation to conquer and rule the Empire.
In November 1535, Manco Inca took his first step to rebellion through a series of speeches which encouraged habitants to rebel.
Impact: Although he was captured and made prisoner by the Pizarro brothers, his speeches resonated with commoners, high ranking officials and leaders. This meant that despite the civil war and political instability, the ‘Inca’s chain of command’ (and the Sapa Inca’s power) was not undermined.
Inca Rebellion: Military tactics
Geographical advantage
Incas showed great adaptability and used their geographical knowledge - Manco Inca set his base in Calca, a town hidden in the depths of the Andes.
Impact: This did not only give them an advantage as the Incas were familiar with roads networks which connected the empire but for Spaniards, who performed their military campaigns and expeditions by horse, made it impossible to enter.
Campaign of terror (Guerrilla-like tactics)
Aware that it was difficult to confront Spaniards which were better equipped, the Inca rebellion started a campaign of terror by ambushing and assassinating isolated encomenderos in December 1535.
Impact: These spontaneous attacks forced encomenderos to take refuge in Cuzco. The city was successfully sieged by unleashing a barrage of stones and the haven where Spanish were hiding, burned.
Battlefield organization
On the battlefield, the Incan military structure was more complex.
This was because they had a greater number of troops but also because different military strategists led their own legions which were in charge of occupying a specific location around Cuzco.
This resulted in a classic military encirclement.
Impact: When Manco Inca launched his full-on attack, it demonstrated that despite the Spaniard’s superiority in armament, Inca tactics were witty and effective. This hampered and threatened Spanish dominion.
Inca Resistance
Prior to the arrival of the Spanish, there was a power vacuum in the Inca leadership. Atahualpa and Huascar, both legitimate sons of the late Huayna Capac claimed the throne but belonged to different camps (Quito vs Cusco, respectively). The conflict escalated to a civil war in 1532.
Although Atahualpa won the war and thus was the ‘legitimate’ successor, half of the empire opposed its rule. Therefore, he could be easily deposed.
Even with the arrival of Spaniards and after witnessing brutality in Atahualpa’s execution, members of the Huascar-Cusco camp still wanted to restore leadership through alliance with conquistadors.
Spanish conquistadors
Leadership disputes
Disputes between Pizarro and de Almagro began to arise, due to a perceived power imbalance.
This would also spawn a division between those who were rewarded by Pizarro and those who thought they were treated unfairly.
In 1529, the Capitulación de Toledo, a decree signed by the Spanish crown, supported Pizarro’s continuous discovery and conquest of Peru as well as designating land distribution between Pizarro and de Almagro.
Pizarro came back from his audience with the crown in 1529 with an exclusive permission which authorised him to conquer the Inca Empire. In addition he was also named Governor of Peru.
In contrast, de Almagro received the title of governor of Nueva Toledo, a land which was unexplored.
Almagro made an expedition southward in 1535 in hopes of finding a rich empire. He returned in early 1537 after encountering an aggressive tribe and no precious metals.
Territorial disputes
Lack of clear boundaries. This left Cuzco unclaimed but Almagro argued the boundary line could ‘pass’ diagonally, thus incorporating the capital to his governorship.
Political violence
Constant conflict caused political turmoil which usually escalated to violence. Both Pizarro and Almagro were assassinated, effectively leaving their respective governorships without a leader.
Moreover, it was almost impossible for the Spanish crown to exert and establish dominion over the American colonies.
Established states: Inca Empire (1438 – 1533, 1572)
Origins
Descendants of populations living in plateaus of Lake Titicaca basin.
Highly influenced by Pre-columbian cultures such as Chavin, Moche, Paracas, Nazca and Tiahuanaco
Before Pachacutec, the Inca inhabited a small area. His expansion policy transformed the Incas from a town to an empire.
Extension
Greatest expansion during Pachacutec’s reign.
Divided in four suyus (quarters) for easy management.
Chinchaysuyu (North), Cuntisuyu (West), Collasuyu (South), Antisuyu (East)
When the Spaniards arrived, the Inca Empire extended through most of the South American Pacific coastline. It was the largest empire in South America
Achievements
Outstanding organization and administrative policies - The Inca Empire never faced famine since crops were stored in common warehouses.
Engineering marvels - construction of structures such as aqueducts provided widespread access to work and andenes, an agricultural terrace which enhanced irrigation to crops.
Additionally, the Inca constructed earthquake-resistant buildings through advanced stonework methods.
Ingenious expansion policy which appealed to coexistence before using force.
Government and religion
Monarchy which was maintained through intra marriage.
The Sapa Inca, king-like leader, could have multiple wives. However, the heir to the throne needed to be the son of the Coya, the first and ‘official’ wife’
Polytheist religion - deities were closely linked to natural elements and phenomena. The most important god was Viracocha, the genderless creator of everything.
Other relevant deities include: Inti (God of the sun), Mama Quilla (Goddess of the Moon), Illapa (God of War), Pachamama (Goddess of Earth) and Supay (God of the death and ruler of the underworld (Uca Pacha).
State towards the 16th century (1500s)
Inca Civil War (1532)
After Huayna Capac’s death in 1525 as well as the death of the named successor, there was a power vacuum.
The throne was contested by Atahualpa and Huascar, both legitimate sons who belonged to different camps (Quito vs Cuzco, respectively).
The conflict escalated to a military conflict, which had Atahualpa as the victor.
Discontent of colonised populations/tribes
Some areas were in constant rebellion. For instance, on-going uprisings in Ecuador motivated the creation of another northern capital: Quito
This made it possible for Spaniard to form alliances, which meant enlarging their army as well as getting insight.
Taxation in the Incan Empire unpopular.
Taxes were extracted through Mita (or Mit’a) mandatory labour which was use to collect tax revenue as well as build projects (e.g. bridges, road networks)
⅔ of what workers produced was destined to taxes. There was little option of social mobility.
The nobility was exempted from taxes and hard labour.
New state: Viceroyalty of Peru (est. 1542) (administered by Spanish Empire)
Origins
Prior to 1492, Spain was not a unified country but a conjunction of autonomous kingdoms which included: Castile, Navarre, Aragon and Granada, the last Muslim bastion.
In the 15th century, Aragon was a prosperous region with political stability. This enabled commercial and territorial expansion in the Mediterranean.
On the other hand, Castile suffered from political turmoil and instability caused by a noble class which wanted to gain greater political power.
1469: The Catholic Monarchs (Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon) marry. Their kingdoms’ thrones were not unified upon marriage but both reigned as co-monarch.
This ‘dynatic union’ established the base for the Spanish Empire.
The monarchs inherited a culturally diverse kingdom. Christians, Jews and Muslim peacefully coexisted, there were marked ethnic variations and Spanish (or Castilian) was not the lingua franca.
Extension
Through marriage of Spanish monarchs, they unified the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. Upon the Reconquista in 1492, the kingdom of Granada was incorporated.
By the 16th century, non-American territories included the Balearic Islands, Sardinia and Sicily through Aragonese expansion and the Canary Islands, through Castilian conquest.
Acquisition of new territory in the Americas was limited by the Treaty of Tordesillas (1497), which stated how New World discoveries would be divided between the Spanish and Portuguese crown.
Achievements
1492: Reconquista and defeat of Muslim rule in Peninsula.
The monarchs believed this was their greatest achievement.
1492: Queen Isabella supported and authorised Christopher Columbus’ expedition to find a new route to Asia. Although this expedition did not meet its intended aim, it opened an opportunity to create a rich empire.
However, the discovery of America was overlooked by the Monarchs as they did not predict the profitability the territories would bring.
Through alliances through marriage, the Spanish monarchs ruled the largest empire in Western Europe through 1479 – 1517.
Government and Religion
Monarchy which also recognized autonomy of towns and cities
State religion is Catholicism. Forced conversions or expulsion of Jews and Muslims in an attempt to ‘make religion the basis for a shared national identity.’
State towards the 16th century (1500s)
Desire to expand overseas trade to compete with Portuguese expansion and minimise loss of dominion in Mediterranean trade to the Ottoman empire.
Formation of a new national identity through a ‘militant Christianity’ which is capable of combating ‘threats’ of Muslim and Jewish presence in the name of Christendom.
However, given there were marked cultural and ethnic divisions, the incorporation of new territories helped create a new national identity by recognizing differences with local people. (e.g. how someone from Sicily differentiates from a Spaniard)
through the influx of new people, which minimised the differences
Military experience from recent success in Reconquista (1492).
Reasons for changes in political structures/organization
Initially, conquistadores ventured into the New World. These expeditions were both self-financed or received financial aid from the Crown, who normally aimed to spread their control to these new territories.
At first the Crown did not think American territories to be a valuable asset until the discovery of precious metals, especially gold.
Conquistadors and any other adventurer who found new territories were granted governorships.
For instance, Francisco Pizarro received the title of ‘Governor of Peru’ after an audience with the monarchs in 1529.
This model was later abandoned for royal officials given its fragility. The Crown encounter issues such as:
Not receiving seized goods although it was stipulated in the Sietes Partidas (1252)
For instance, when Atahualpa offered a room of gold and silver, this ransom booty by law belonged to the King. However, Pizarro only sent a fifth to the Crown.
Political turmoil and internal fight between Spanish settlers.
Since most conquistadors aimed to amass wealth from their expeditions, they were unlikely to comply with the Crown. Therefore, the King needed a trustworthy representative to act on his behalf.
Domestic policies
Religious policy
Papal Bull (Dum Diversas) - issued by Pope Nicholas V in 1452 authorised colonisation and submission.
“To subdue saracens, pagans and other unbelievers to Christ [...] transfer for ever their territory to the Portuguese Crown”
This bull effectively called for a Christian doctrine which supported (and encouraged) expedition trips, discoveries, emigration and colonisation in the name of God.
Economic policy
The crown demanded part of seized goods, a practice which was established before America was discovered through the Sietes Partidas (1252), a set of ‘normative rules for the Kingdom’
Political policies
The 1492 Decree expelled all non-Christian (Jews and Muslims) from the Iberian peninsula or otherwise demanded conversion to Christianity.
This aimed to create a unified national identity. Potential heresy was repressed through the Inquisition but at large, it was an institution to ‘perpetuate imperialism’ and ‘suppress natural development of government’ in Spain and abroad, especially the American colonies.
The King of Spain after authorising conquistadors expeditions, assumed new territories were claimed in the name of the Crown. For the new territories, this also meant
The empire or country was automatically part of the kingdom of Spain.
Revenues from new territories would flow into ‘home treasury’
Tributes from colonies ‘contributed to the support of the home government’
Treatment of subjects
New social order
The Spanish crown was primarily concerned with obtaining lucrative profits from American colonies, collected from all subjects.
Introduction of a caste system, which divided habitants due their ethnicity and indicated the taxation they were obliged to pay.
Peninsulares: Born in Spain; could hold highest ranking in colonial institutions
Creoles: Descendants of Spaniards (Peninsulares). Despite ethnic and cultural origin, they could not assume leadership of colonial institutions.
Mestizos: descendants of Spaniards (or Europeans) and Indigenous.
Indigenous/Mulattoes: native populations present prior to the arrival of Spaniards. Subject to forced labour.
Mulattoes, descendants of Spaniards and Africans. By law, the child inherited the status of the mother, so a mulatto could be born into slavery.
Africans: Slaves; performed forced labour.
Inca nobility
Recognised by Spanish authorities in the form of caciques, a hereditary native nobility.
Caciques were in charge of the civil and criminal jurisdiction over their subjects under the supervision of Spanish authorities.
Privileges: exempted from paying tribute and forced labour and the right to have their cases tried by the audiencias, bypassing corregidores, their immediate superiors. Likewise, they were entitled to honours similar to those of hidalgos of Castile.
Indigenous people
Encomienda
Subject to forced labour and high taxation mainly through the encomienda system, which promised guardianship in exchange for labour.
In reality this system did not grant them anything of the promise. While natives tributed in the Empire, they received protection and food security as all collected crops were stored in a warehouse.
Now, they had virtually no rights and all surplus was destined to purchase goods from overseas as well as African slaves.
Extirpacion de idolatrias
A series of campaigns which aimed to force conversion. With the support of the Church and colonial authorities, it was a system based on baseless accusations.
These campaigns consisted in a group of various institutions (School Of Caciques, reductions of priests) which would instil European and Christian values within Indigenous populations.
For instance, the School of caciques aimed to teach descendants of nobility in order to guarantee alliance to the crown and knowledge of the administrative schemes of the viceroyalty.
The most common practice or institutions were the ‘visits’ (vistas) made by a visitador de idolatrias (appointed by the archbishop of Lima), a notary and prosecutor.
This group normally travelled to towns, encouraging people to denounce ancient rites that were taking place. Those denouncing could make an anonymous claim and would be exempt from punishment.
The accused would normally be interrogated and tortured if they did not confess their crimes. These procedures were carried out based on claims with little or no evidence.
Moreover, most natives did not speak Spanish. Even if the declaration were made by an interpreter, this was normally vulnerable to misunderstandings and fabrications.
Reducciones
Resettlement program started in 1570 under viceroy Francisco de Toledo.
The aim of this program was to move native populations to Spanish-style towns, in order to be surveilled by civil authorities and parish priests.
This program displaced at least 1.5 million people and was possible due to Toledo’s extraordinary organisational skills.
This was also a way to uproot from their ancestral home, therefore disconnecting with identity. It was also a way to instil European and Christian values on native daily life.
Peninsulares and criollos
Faced persecution through the Inquisition (est. 1572), an institution which much like the extirpaciones, was based on denunciations without evidence.
The end goal was not correcting ‘Un-Christian’ behaviours
In many instances, sentences included seizing wealth and property, therefore the institution was seen as a tool of control.
Francisco Pizarro (b. 1478 – d. 1541)
Nature of rule
By the time he embarked to Peru he was a wealthy landowner in Panama and had 30 years of experience fighting indigenous populations (part owner of gold mine, encomienda of 150 native, labour and tribute)
Legitimacy - awarded the title of Governor of Peru and exclusive permission to colonise the new found American territories after an audience with the Crown in 1529. These conditions were stipulated in the Capitulación de Toledo (1529).
Ambition and achievements
Born poor and illegitimate - His only way to ascend socially was by amassing personal wealth.
Success and failures
Conqueror of the Inca Empire - displayed effective organisational skills. Founded and designed major cities such as Jauja, the first capital city and Lima.
Achieved recognition despite not having ‘family pedigree.’ - He was awarded distinction such as Marquis of His Majesty’s Kingdom of New Castile.
His mistreatment and unfair negotiation caused fallout with conquest partners, including Diego de Almagro. This would lead to resentment and political turmoil. He could never fully exert his role as ‘Governor of Peru’ and ultimately concluded in his assassination.
On the other hand, he never materialised his vision of establishing a Pizarro dynasty to rule the American colonies. This was partly due to his mistreatment which caused resentment and his unpopular ambitious and cruel brothers. However, this vision was almost impossible since the Spanish crown expected him to rule on their behalf
Manco Inca (b.1515 – d.1545)
Nature of rule
Born into Inca nobility - Last male descendant of Huayna Capac, and allied with the Huascar-Cusco camp.
Legitimacy - Crowned by Pizarro in 1533 at the age of 17.
Although he was a legitimate ruler by birth, he was a puppet leader in the Spanaird’s eyes.
Ambition and achievements
Initially, Manco Inca aimed to restore the Huascar-Cusco camp to power through the help of Diego de Almagro. However, when he realised conquistadors were not reliable, he called a rebellion.
Military genius who defied Spanish military superiority through:
Two successful sieges in Lima and Cuzco
Complex battlefield structure; different strategists led their own legions.
Campaign on terror and guerrilla-style attacks to encomenderos and burning of sieged cities
Success and failures
His military action successfully deterred the establishment of Spanish dominion.
Additionally he forced the Spanish to negotiate with him in order to cease the sieges.
Although he never restored Incan rule, his rebellion and fierce display of power prolonged resistance until 1572, when his son Tupac Amaru I was executed by colonial authorities.
Political reasons
Spread Inca culture and identity - Newly conquered populations were not immediately forced to adopt Inca customs but they were slowly persuaded by Mitmakonas.
Mitmaqkuna or Mitimas - a policy of forced migration where whole tribes would move to recently conquered areas.
This was done as a measure of state security, guaranteeing royalty to the Sapa Inca and spreading Inca culture.
Economic reasons
Constant search for skills and organisation methods - the Inca road system (or Qhapaq Ñan), for instance, was based on Wari road systems. In the Northern territories, Chimu people were recognized for their metallurgy skills
Political organization
Inca society was based on a redistributive economy, meaning inhabitants paid great tribute in exchange for safety and security. Social mobility therefore was rare.
The noble class normally held all political power, which was divided in:
Sapa Inca: powerful head of state who oversaw civil, military and religious power. His position was hereditary and was backed through divine right.
Capac Incas: nobles that could trace ancestry to Manco Capac, mythological founder of the empire. They ensured Sapa Inca’s orders were carried out.
Hahua Incas: nobles who rose to power by showing devotion. They were in charge of planning, organising and managing large groups of citizens.
Apus: regional leaders or heads of state of each quarter of the empire (tawantinsuyu). Enforce peace, collect taxes and look after the well being of citizens.
Curacas: former leaders of conquered cultures who collected taxes and oversaw work progress. Lowest ranking nobility and an inherited title.
Neither Noble nor Commoner: skilled workers (e.g. stone masons, architects and engineers) who did commissioned work for the Sapa Inca.
Religion and state
Sapa Inca was the head of religious power - His role was justified through the ‘divine right’ as he was believed to be a direct descendant of Inti (God of the Sun).
Since it was primarily an agricultural state, most deities had a natural function. Festivities and rites would mark the start of harvest season.
Political reasons
The Spanish monarchs hoped to establish an empire and trade capable of competing with the Portuguese.
The Portuguese successfully financed expeditions and established lucrative trading routes within the African coastlines by the 1480s.
The rise of the Ottoman Empire made Spain lose its dominion in Mediterranean trade, which was profitable due to products coming from Asia.
Economic reasons
Rise of a capitalist system in Europe meant gold and other precious metals were in great demand.
Despite sizable wealth coming from the Americas, the new empire had to finance territorial expansion in Europe and campaigns to fight opposition. Spain needed to borrow from private banking to cover the cost and by 1557, it dedicated ⅔ of state revenue to pay its debt.
The mineral revenue from the Americas became the empire's primary source of revenue. Also, American wealth ‘ensured that private banking houses would continue to extend credit to the empire’
Political organization
Viceroy, appointed by the King and its representative on American territories.
Became head of state, replacing the Sapa Inca, a hereditary position legitimised by divine right (sons of Inti)
Colonial institutions characterised by bureaucracy and legal hurdles. The Spanish American colony was composed by:
Spanish king: Created power structure to help him rule over the colonies.
Council of the Indies (est. 1524): Highest administrative, legislative, occasional court and advisory body in colonies. Governed from Spain.
Viceroy: Governor and representative of the Spanish king overseas. Filled administrative functions
Audiencia (High Courts): Appointed to oversee judicial matters and granted additional administrative function to limit power of viceroys.
Religion and the state
During the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, the Pope granted the monarchy the right of royal patronage (patronato real) over the Church, which meant kings could appoint clergy and collect Church revenues. In return, the crown was required to finance construction of Churches.
In the American colonies, the royal patronage gave the crown a chance to check on colonial authorities, since they could appoint members that would serve the king’s interest.
Campaign of terror
Methods - shock and awe, blitzkrieg campaign, mutilation or burning alive
Goal - force indigenous people to comply with Spanish demands normally extracting gold or forcing habitants to join their fight.
This process was not unique, as Cortes had used it the conquest of the Aztec Empire but Pizarro was more brutal (7,000 vs 3,000)
Effect: “displays to sow terror throughout the local population.” Pizarro’s aim was not to exterminate but control natives.
Use of ‘legal procedures’
Methods - made-up committee consisting of legal advisors, conquistadors and clergymen deliberated and reached a sentence.
Goal - justify executions and prevent opposition.
The first and most famous was the execution of Atahualpa in July 1533, on the grounds he organised a rebellion.
Tupac Amaru, son of Manco Inca and last claimant to the Inca throne, was also executed by Spanish authorities in 1572 on the grounds he was the ruler of a rebel state and he enabled ‘heathen religious practices’.
Effect: This effectively ended Inca rule and prevent potential indigenous uprisings.
It is worth mentioning that although lawyers were barred from participating in expeditions (as written in the Capitulación de Toledo (1529)) many made their way to the South. This was presumably because the King wanted to avoid ‘perceived negative effects of Spanish litigations.’
The Inca Rebellion
Launched 1533 by Manco Inca prevented conquistadors from seizing complete power and resources from the Inca Empire
The rebellion aggravated the lack of dominion the Spanish had. In reality, they controlled only a handful of cities: North: Quito, Tumbez, San Miguel, Cajamarca; Center: Jauja and Lima; South: Cusco
Despite its advancement in military equipment, Spaniards created a methodical albeit brutal counterinsurgency campaign, which consistent in:
Terror campaigns: spearing inhabitants, torching houses and setting fire to their field. Mass killings of civilians aimed to discourage resistance fighters from carrying out their own terror campaigns.
Moreover, the counterinsurgency measures also motivated the surrender of skilled Inca general Tiso.
Pizarro also received reinforcement troops from abroad, since Spaniards were outnumbered.
Political turmoil and internal fights within conquistadors
This situation not only made it impossible for governors to rule (such as Pizarro) but also concerned the Spanish crown, which could not establish an efficient overseas government.
King Charles V sends Blasco Nuñez Vela as the first viceroy, however, he is executed by Gonzalo Pizarro.
As the only living member who took part in the Conquest of the Inca Empire, he refused to be ruled over and to concede power to the Crown.
Battle of Jaquijahuna (1548)
Pedro de la Gasca is sent as a new viceroy. He soon raises and army and defeats Pizarro on the battlefield.
Gonzalo Pizarro is defeated, executed and exhibited as a traitor. Most of Pizarro’s troops changed allegiance after de la Gasca offered pardons.
The Inca Rebellion
At the age of 17, Manco Inca, last descendant of Huayna Capac was crowned by the Spaniards as a puppet king.
Initially, Manco Inca allied with Almagro in hopes of securing power but upon reports by high priest Villac Umu (who had accompanied Almagro on an expedition to conquer land in the South) which illustrated the Spaniard’s brutality and ambition for gold.
Manco Inca soon realised the Conquistadors true motivation to conquer and rule the Empire.
In November 1535, Manco Inca took his first step to rebellion through a series of speeches which encouraged habitants to rebel.
Impact: Although he was captured and made prisoner by the Pizarro brothers, his speeches resonated with commoners, high ranking officials and leaders. This meant that despite the civil war and political instability, the ‘Inca’s chain of command’ (and the Sapa Inca’s power) was not undermined.
Inca Rebellion: Military tactics
Geographical advantage
Incas showed great adaptability and used their geographical knowledge - Manco Inca set his base in Calca, a town hidden in the depths of the Andes.
Impact: This did not only give them an advantage as the Incas were familiar with roads networks which connected the empire but for Spaniards, who performed their military campaigns and expeditions by horse, made it impossible to enter.
Campaign of terror (Guerrilla-like tactics)
Aware that it was difficult to confront Spaniards which were better equipped, the Inca rebellion started a campaign of terror by ambushing and assassinating isolated encomenderos in December 1535.
Impact: These spontaneous attacks forced encomenderos to take refuge in Cuzco. The city was successfully sieged by unleashing a barrage of stones and the haven where Spanish were hiding, burned.
Battlefield organization
On the battlefield, the Incan military structure was more complex.
This was because they had a greater number of troops but also because different military strategists led their own legions which were in charge of occupying a specific location around Cuzco.
This resulted in a classic military encirclement.
Impact: When Manco Inca launched his full-on attack, it demonstrated that despite the Spaniard’s superiority in armament, Inca tactics were witty and effective. This hampered and threatened Spanish dominion.
Inca Resistance
Prior to the arrival of the Spanish, there was a power vacuum in the Inca leadership. Atahualpa and Huascar, both legitimate sons of the late Huayna Capac claimed the throne but belonged to different camps (Quito vs Cusco, respectively). The conflict escalated to a civil war in 1532.
Although Atahualpa won the war and thus was the ‘legitimate’ successor, half of the empire opposed its rule. Therefore, he could be easily deposed.
Even with the arrival of Spaniards and after witnessing brutality in Atahualpa’s execution, members of the Huascar-Cusco camp still wanted to restore leadership through alliance with conquistadors.
Spanish conquistadors
Leadership disputes
Disputes between Pizarro and de Almagro began to arise, due to a perceived power imbalance.
This would also spawn a division between those who were rewarded by Pizarro and those who thought they were treated unfairly.
In 1529, the Capitulación de Toledo, a decree signed by the Spanish crown, supported Pizarro’s continuous discovery and conquest of Peru as well as designating land distribution between Pizarro and de Almagro.
Pizarro came back from his audience with the crown in 1529 with an exclusive permission which authorised him to conquer the Inca Empire. In addition he was also named Governor of Peru.
In contrast, de Almagro received the title of governor of Nueva Toledo, a land which was unexplored.
Almagro made an expedition southward in 1535 in hopes of finding a rich empire. He returned in early 1537 after encountering an aggressive tribe and no precious metals.
Territorial disputes
Lack of clear boundaries. This left Cuzco unclaimed but Almagro argued the boundary line could ‘pass’ diagonally, thus incorporating the capital to his governorship.
Political violence
Constant conflict caused political turmoil which usually escalated to violence. Both Pizarro and Almagro were assassinated, effectively leaving their respective governorships without a leader.
Moreover, it was almost impossible for the Spanish crown to exert and establish dominion over the American colonies.
