A&P Exam 1
1. Define anatomy: structure of human body
2. Define physiology: function of human body and how all parts interact with each other
3. Structural levels of organization: atom-molecule-organelle-cell-tissue-organ-organ system-organism
4. Define homeostasis: the maintenance of a stable internal environment
5. Give the basic functions for each of the 11 body systems:
a. Integumentary: protects, synthesizes vitamin D, body temperature regulation
b. Skeletal: provides structural support, makes blood cells
c. Muscular: allows for manipulation of the environment (movement); generates heat
d. Nervous: sends and receives electrical signals to control functions of body
e. Endocrine: hormone regulation for metabolism, growth, reproduction, etc.
f. Cardiovascular: transports gases, nutrients, and wastes throughout body
g. Lymphatic: fights off foreign bodies to keep you healthy
h. Respiratory: provides gas exchange for the body cells
i. Digestive: absorbs nutrients necessary for survival
j. Urinary: regulates body fluids, electrolyte balance, pH balance, etc.
k. Reproductive system: produce gametes for potential offspring
6. What part of an atom is involved in chemical reactions? Valence electrons
7. What are the differences between an ionic and covalent bond? Ionic bond gives/receives electrons, while covalent bonds share electrons.
8. On the pH scale, what is neutral, acidic, and basic? 0 is acidic, 7 is neutral, 14 is basic.
9. Compare DNA/RNA in terms of function, structure, and base pairing
a. DNA is the blueprint of genetic material, it is double stranded, and its base pairing is adenine-thymine and guanine-cytosine
b. RNA synthesizes proteins based off the information from DNA, it is single stranded, and when it pairs to DNA the pairings are uracil-adenine and guanine-cytosine
10. Describe mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA:
a. mRNA: messenger that transmits information to build a protein from DNA ; series of nucleotides in a specific order (codon) designate start/stop locations
b. tRNA: transfer; brings amino acids necessary to build protein
c. rRNA: ribosomal; synthesizes (builds) proteins
11. Provide information about the 4 main groups of organic compounds necessary for humans:
a. Carbohydrates: sugars; they are converted to ATP for energy; monomer: monosaccharides (glucose), polymers: disaccharides and polysaccharides
b. Lipids: fats; energy storage, insulation, and protection; monomers: fatty acids, polymers: triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids
c. Proteins: highly variable in function, composed of 4 structural levels; monomer: amino acids
d. Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA; stores and reads genetic information that is the basis of an organism; monomers: nucleotides
12. Describe passive and active transport: passive transport works along a concentration gradient, where molecules want to move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration; no energy is required. Active transport works against a concentration gradient, and requires energy (ATP) to do this.
13. What are the main structures all cell types share, despite having vastly different functions? Cell membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm
14. Give the function of these common cellular organelles:
a. Nucleus: control center of cell, also contains DNA
b. Mitochondria: site of cellular respiration to produce energy (ATP)
c. Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis
d. Lysosomes: break down substances via digestive enzymes; “suicide sacs”
e. Rough ER: synthesizes proteins and builds new membrane
f. Smooth ER: produces lipids/hormones
g. Golgi apparatus: packages, sorts, and modifies molecules for transport in/out of cell
h. Vesicle: pouches that transport materials in/out of cell
i. Centrioles: involved in cell division
15. Define isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic. What happens to a cell in either of these solutions?
a. Isotonic: the level of solutes is equal in and outside of a cell; nothing happens to the cell
b. Hypotonic: the level of solutes outside the cell is lower compared to the inside of the cell; the cell will swell and burst (cytolysis)
c. Hypertonic: the level of solutes outside the cell is higher compared to inside of the cell; the cell will shrivel and die (crenation)
16. Describe what occurs during the cell cycle (interphase + mitosis):
a. Interphase: basic metabolic functions and DNA replication
b. Mitosis: nuclear division
c. Mitosis, prophase: nuclear envelope breaks down, chromatin condenses to form chromosomes
d. Mitosis, metaphase: chromosomes cluster along middle of cell, forming a bar
e. Mitosis, anaphase: replicated chromosomes split apart and are pulled towards opposing poles; cell elongates
f. Mitosis, telophase: two cells begin splitting apart, and nuclear envelopes develop for each
g. Cytokinesis: cytoplasmic division
17. What are serous membranes? Membranes that line body cavities for protection. Visceral layer covers organs, parietal layer lines the cavity, and serous fluid fills the space between the layers to reduce friction.
18. Give information about the 4 main tissue types in the human body:
a. Epithelial: line spaces, avascular, mitosis occurs quickly, cells packed closely together
b. Connective: connects tissues and/or structures, vascular, cells scattered in background fluid
c. Muscular: excitable, allows for movement
d. Nervous: excitable, sends and receives information
19. What are the two main layers of skin? Epidermis (superficial) and dermis (deep)
20. What are the functions of the 4 main cell types within the epidermis?
a. Melanocytes: produce melanin that protects cells from UV rays
b. Keratinocytes: produce keratin that is a tough protein for protection
c. Merkel (tactile) cells: sensory receptors for touch
d. Langerhans (dendritic) cells: aid in immune response
21. Breakdown the layers of the epidermis, from deepest to most superficial:
a. Stratum basale: constantly undergoing mitosis, composed mostly of melanocytes
b. Stratum spinosum: consists mostly of keratinocytes, also melanocytes and dendritic cells
c. Stratum granulosum: keratinization begins here, water-resistant properties occur here
d. Stratum lucidum: thin layer of dead, clear cells; only present in thick skin
e. Stratum corneum: thickest layer, all cells dead in this layer
22. Breakdown the layers of the dermis, from deepest to most superficial:
a. Reticular: anchored to hypodermis below; approx. 80% of dermal thickness; contains blood vessels, hair follicles, and sebaceous/sweat glands; made of dense fibrous connective tissue
b. Papillary: contains dermal papillae (fingerlike projections that extend into epidermis to provide nutrients); friction ridges to enhance gripping ability found here; made mostly of areolar connective tissue
23. What are the 3 pigments responsible for skin tone? Melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin
24. Define apoptosis: controlled cell death
25. Describe eccrine (merocrine) glands: “normal” sweat gland, functions in thermoregulation, secretes mostly water, salts, and wastes
26. Describe apocrine glands: found in axillary/genital regions, secretes fatty substances and proteins, begin functioning at puberty. Ceruminous gland secretes cerumen (earwax) and mammary gland secretes milk.
27. Describe the rule of nines: breakdown of body into sections to estimate volume of fluid loss
28. What is the immediate threat to the body following a severe burn? Loss of fluids; dehydration
29. What are the functions of bone? Support and protection, fat storage, mineral (calcium/phosphate) storage, hematopoiesis
30. Define the main bone shapes: long: longer than it is wide, mostly in arms and legs; short: about equal in width and length, mostly in ankles and wrists; flat: plate-like, mostly in cranium and sternum; irregular: doesn’t fit any previously mentioned shape; sesamoid: embedded in a tendon at a joint (patella); accessory:
31. What is the function of red bone marrow? Yellow bone marrow? Red bone marrow creates new blood cells (hematopoiesis), yellow bone marrow stores fat
32. Describe the main anatomy of a long bone:
a. Epiphyses: ends of long bone, spongy bone located deep and contains red bone marrow
b. Diaphysis: shaft of long bone; medullary cavity located deep and contains yellow bone marrow
c. Metaphysis: intersection of diaphysis and epiphysis; epiphyseal line located here (site of bone lengthening)
d. Articular cartilage: layer of cartilage on each epiphyses to provide cushioning for joint
33. Define osteogenic, osteocyte, osteoblast, and osteoclast cells: osteogenic: mitotically active stem cells; osteocyte: mature bone cell for support; osteoblast: builds bone matrix; osteoclast: breaks down bone matrix
34. What microscopic structure is the main structural component of bone? Osteons
35. Define ossification: bone tissue development
36. How do endochondral and intramembranous ossification differ? Endochondral occurs in all bones except skull and clavicle; newest bone is made inside the bone and expands its way outwards. Intramembranous occurs in skull bones and clavicle; newest bone is secreted on the outside of already formed bone
37. What are the 4 steps, in order, to repairing a bone fracture? Hematoma formation, fibrocartilaginous callus formation, bony callus formation, bone remodeling
38. How do hormones affect bone growth?
a. Growth hormone: from pituitary gland, functions to stimulate epiphyseal plate growth. In youth, deficiency of GH causes dwarfism, and excess of GH causes gigantism. In adults, deficiency of GH isn’t much of a problem, and excess of GH causes acromegaly.
b. Thyroid hormone: regulates activity of GH and cell metabolism
c. Testosterone/estrogen: promote growth spurt at beginning of puberty and induce closing of epiphyseal plate at end of puberty.