IB Psychology

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IB Psychology Holism vs Reductionism Holism: we know that behaviour is influneced by multiple factors
Reductionism: However, to study them scientifically, we have to isolate them one by one. 
IB Psychology Define psychology Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes
IB Psychology Reductionist/reductionism Attempts to isolate the effect of one variable 
IB Psychology::Biological approach List the 3 principles of biological approaches to psychology  1. Behvaiour is the product of physiology
2. Behvaiour can be genetically inherited
3. Animal reserach may inform our understanding of human behaviour
IB Psychology What is a principle and why is it different from other assumptions? A principle is a broad assumption that guides reserach in a certain area. It's breadth and fundamental nature is what separates it from other assumptions.
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour Define localization of function Localization of function is the idea that every behaviour is associated with a specific brain region (has its specific place in the brain and is asociated with a certain brain area)
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour Broadly, what does the brain structure consist of? "

• Cortex
• Cerebellum
• Limbic system
• Brain stem

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour Outline studies that support the strict localization of the brain "Paula Broca (1861): the case study of ""Tan""; Broca's area and Broca's aphasia the loss of atriculated speech
Carl Wenicke (1874): Wernicke's area, Wenicke's aphasia–a gereral impairment of language comprehension, while at the same time speech production is intact
Wilder Penfield use the metjhod of neural stimulation in treating patients with severe epilepsy; created a map of sensory and motor cortex known as the cortical homunuculus"
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies Describe research opposing the idea of strict localization Karl Lashley: The method of induced brain damage in expeirments with rats in a maze; the principle of mass action (there is a correlation betwen learning abilities and the percentage of cortex removed, but not location of removed cells), equipotentiality (one part of the corex can take over the functions of another part); conclusion–memory is distributed rather than localized. 
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour List the limitations of strict localization

• Some functions are localized weakly, that is, several brain areas may be responsible for it but some areas are dominant
• Some functions are widely distributed
• Some components of a function may be localized while other components of the same function are distributed in the brain
• Localization is not static (neuroplasticity)

IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour Nervous system Is a system of neurons–cells that perfrom the function of communication in the body. The centeral nervous system consists of the spinal cord and the brain. Brain::structure
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour Outline the cortex of the brain "Is a layer of neurons with a folded surface covering the brain on the outside. It is teh largest part of the human brain associated with higher-order functions such as abtract thoguht or voluntary action. Evolutionarily, this is part of the brain developed the latest. The coretex is divided into four sections called ""lobes""." Brain::structure
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour List the 4 lobes in the cortex and outline its responsibility 

• Frontal lobes: associated with reasnoning, planning, thinking, and decision-making
• Parietal lobe: associated with movment, orientation, perception, and recognition
• Occipital lobe: associated with visual processing
• Temporal lobes: Are associated with processing auditory information, memory and speech

Brain::structure
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour The structure that connects the 2 hemispheres (left and right) of the brain is known as the Corpus callosum Brain::structure
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour Limbic system "Is an evolutionarily older subcortical structure. It is sometimes referred to as the ""emotional brain"". It includes several structures." Brain::structure
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour List and outline the structures of the limbic system "

• Thalamus: has mostly sensory functoins. Nerves from almost all sensory organs reach the thalamus as a final ""hub"" before they are connected to the cortex
• Hypothalamus: is ""below"" the thalamus in the brain and it is involved in such functions as emotion, thirst, and hunger
• Amygdala: Involved in memory, emotion and fear
• Hippocampus: is importnt for such functions as learning, memory, and transferring short-term memory to a more permanent store; spatial orinetation

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour The main function of the brian stem is to Regulate the basic vital processes such as breathing or heartbeat. It connects the brain to the spinal cord, This part of the human brain is very much like the entire brain found in lower animals such as reptiles.  Brain::structure
IB Psychology Synaptic plasticity  "The ability of the neuron to form new synaptic connections and break up old ones"
IB Psychology Cortical remapping "Huge sections of the brain to rewire: The phenomenon when brain area X assumes the functions of brain area Y, for example due to injury"
IB Psychology What are the 2 main forms of neuroplasticity (big types) Coritcal remapping and synaptic plasticity 
IB Psychology What is neuroplasticity? 

IB Psychology What is dendtritic branching? Is the process of the dendrites increasing in size to reach out closer to other and more neurons to form stronger connections and new pathways with each other. 
IB Psychology What is neural/synaptic pruning? the process in which your synapses/neurons lose connections with each other if you don't use them (if you don't think about it)
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour What are 3 parts of a neuron

• The body (Soma)
• Dendrites
• Axons

IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour What is a synapes and where can it be found A synapes is where the axon of one neuron approaches a dendrite or soma of another neuron. A synapes (or a synaptic gap) is a structure that connects two neurons.
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour Explain what Threshold of excitation is  "It is the threshold before the neurons fire. If the sum excitation exceeds this threshold, the neuron ""fires""–generates a brief pulse called action potnetial that travles along the axon to ther neurons, passing the excitation further. "
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour How do neurons communicate with each other? When the action potential reaches the end of the axon, a neurotransmitter is released from the axon terminal into the synaptic gap. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers. They are constantly synthesized in the neuron and moved to the axon terminal to be stored there.
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour Excitory neurotransmitters  Are transmitters that allow the impulse to cross the synapes --> produce stimulating effects on the brain
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour Inhibitory neurotransmitters Are transmitters that stop the impulse, preventing them from crossing the synapes. They produce calming effets on the brain. These neutransmitters are always in a state of dynamic balance. 
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour What happens when excitory or inhibitory neurotransmitters are out of their optimal ranges in the brain? They may cause various behavioural malfunctions such as mental disorders. 
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour Neurotransmitters are affected by what? Agonists and antagonists 
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour Agonists  Are chemcials that enhance the action of a neurotransmitter
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour Antagonists  Are chemicals that counteract a neurotransmitter, preventing a signal from being passed any further. 
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour Can cause and effect be gained by research in neurotransmitter? To a certain extend, yes; however there are many limitations. Thus research into the influence of neurotransmission on behaviour will always be reductionist in the sense that we need to maniulate one variable and assume that it is the only variable that changes. 
IB Psychology What does a double blind study mean? Means that both the patient and the reseracher does not know which condition they are in --> as in they do not know if they have the placebo are not. 
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour What is Serotonin? "Serotonin is a inhibitory neurotransmitter,  that is involved in emotion and mood, balancing excessive excitatory neurotransmitter effects in your brain. High levels are associated with optimism. Low l"
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour Inhibitory "Inhibitory means that they prevent impulses from crossing the synapses. They produce calming effects on the brain. "
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour Citalopram - drug "

Citalopram belongs to a class of antidepressant agents known as selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour SSRI selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors blocks the reuptake of serotonin at the synaptic cleft, resulting in more serotonin being present for longer. 

IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What was the aim of the Crockett's (2010) study  To investigate the effect of serotonin on prosocial behaviour 
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What was the method used in Crockett's (2010) study  Lab experiments which means that cause and effect relationships can be inferred from the results of the study. As it was a lab experiment, participants were also randomly allocated into groups. 
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What was the procedure of Crockett's (2010) study?  "

A sample of volunteers were recruited for the study. It included 30 healthy subjects (mean age of 26). The experiment followed a repeated measures design with two conditions. In condition 1 participants were given a dose of citalopram (a drug that is a highly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor → SSRI). The chemicals of the SSRI block the reuptake of serotonin from the synapse, in this way boosting its concentration and prolonging its effects. 

While in condition 2 (the control) participants were given a placebo. The design was counterbalanced, and this was a double-blind study. 

After taking the drug, participants were given a series of moral dilemmas that involved choosing between a utilitarian outcome (saving five lives) and aversive harmful actions in the scenarios were two types: personal and impersonal. 

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What are the results and conclusions that can be inferred/gained from Crockett's (2010) study  "Serotonin reduces the acceptability of us causing personal harm and in this way promotes prosocial behaviour. It modulates reactions in the brain to emotionally salient situations so that directly inflicting harm on others is judged as less acceptable. Thus, the resutls show that levels of serotonin can have an effect on prosocial behaviour. "
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What is the aim of the Fisher, Aron, and Brown (2005) experiment? To investigate the neural mechanisms of romantic love
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What is the method used in the Fisher, Aron, and Brown (2005) experiment? Lab experiment:
The independent variabel was whether participants were looking at photos of someoen they were in love with OR an accquitance and the dependent variable was the brain's activation in specific regions. 
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What is the procedure of the Fisher, Aron, and Brown (2005) experiment? "

10 men and 7 women who were currently in romantic relationships with a mean length of 7 months took part in the study. 

All participants were placed in an fMRI scanner and engaged in a standardised procedure involving looking at photographs while their brains were being scanned.

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies "What are the results and conclusion of the Fisher, Aron, and Brown (2005) experiment?" "When participants were looking at photographs of people they were in love with, the fMRI recorded activation in dopamine-rich neural networks, primarily the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the caudate nucleus.

Romantic love is linked with dopamine-rich areas of the brain that are associated with reward and motivation. This suggests that love is a drive and dopamine can influence our drive towards being in love; Neurotransmission plays an important role in rewards/motivation, specifically love.

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies Who were the psychologists that conducted experiments on HM and in what year(s)? Milner and Corkin (1957 and 1997)
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What was the aim of Milner and Corkin's (1957 and 1997) study on HM? "To explore parts of the brain that are responsible for memory; more specifically, long term memory. "
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What was the method and procedure used in Milner and Corkin's (1957 and 1997) study on HM? "

Case study and interview as they were specifically looking at HM’s condition and asking him questions to see what kind of information he was able to recall and what kind of information he was unable to recall. They asked him specific questions about his condition to help determine how he’s different from other people with a complete brain to determine the function and purpose of the hippocampus. 

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What were the results of Milner and Crokin's (1957 and 1997) case study on HM? "

HM was able to form short term memory for no longer than 15 minutes with the help of repeating the things he had to remember such as a sequence of numbers. HM was still able to speak (meaning he hasn’t lost his memory of language). He was able to map out his house’s flooring plan which shows that he can still recall visual information but not conceptual ones. HM could still make new memories regarding movement such as muscle memory (procedural memory). 

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What conclusions can be made from Milner and Corkin's (1957 and 1997) case study on HM? "

• The memory systems in the brain constitute a highly specialized and complex system.
• The hippocampus plays a critical role in converting memories of experiences from short-term memory to long-term memory.
• However, researchers found that short-term memory is not stored in the hippocampus as HM was able to retain information for a while if he rehearsed it.
• Since HM was able to retain some memories for events that happened long before his surgery it indicates that the medial temporal region is not the site of permanent storage but rather plays a role in the organization and permanent storage of memories elsewhere in the brain.
• Implicit memory contains several stores - for example, procedural memory, emotional memory and skills and habits. Each of these areas is related to different brain areas.

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What was the aim of the Maguire (2000) study? "

To investigate how the brain structure of London taxi drivers is different from the average brain.

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What was the method used in Maguire's 2000 study? "

Quasi- experiment (comparison of two pre-existing groups); correlational study in the part where driving experience was correlated with gray matter volume. MRI and VBM (voxel based morphometry) was used to measure the variables. 

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What were the results gained from Maguire's 2000 case study? "

Taxi drivers had increased gray matter volume in the posterior hippocampus, compared to the control group subjects. On the other hand, control subjects had increased gray matter volume in the anterior hippocampus.

This means that redistribution of gray matter occurred in the hippocampus of taxi drivers, from the anterior to the posterior.

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What were the conclusions of Maguire's 2000 study? "

Redistribution of gray matter in the hippocampus occurs in taxi drivers in response to gaining navigational experience. The posterior hippocampus is known to be involved in using previously learned spatial information, while the anterior hippocampus is known to be responsible for learning new spatial information. 

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What was the aim Draganski's 2004 study? "

The aim of the study was to see whether learning a new skill would have an effect on the brain’s of participants; in this case, the new skill was juggling. 

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What as the method used in Draganski's 2004 study? Field experiment
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What was the procedure used in Draganski's 2004 study? "

The participants for this study were 24 volunteers between the ages of 20-24 (there were 21 females and 3 males). All participants were non-jugglers at the start of the study. Each participant had an MRI scan at the start of the study to serve as a base rate of gray matter and brain structure. At that point the jugglers had a second MRI scan. After the scan, they were told not to juggle anymore and then a third and final scan was carried out three months later. The non-juggling group served as a control group for the duration of the study. 

To analyze the MRI scans, the researchers used voxel-based morphometry (VBM) to determine if there were significant differences in neural density (grey matter) in the brains of jugglers vs. non-jugglers. From the baseline scans that were taken before the study began, they found no significant regional differences in grey matter between the two conditions. However, at the end of the first part of the study, the jugglers showed a significantly larger amount of gray matter in the mid-temporal area in both hemispheres (an area associated with visual memory). Three months after the participants stopped juggling–when many were no longer able to carry out the routine–the amount of gray matter in these parts of the brain had decreased. There was no change over the duration of the study in the non-juggling sample. 

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What were the results of Draganski's 2004 study? "

It appears that juggling relies more on visual memory–that is, the perception of spatial anticipation of moving objects–than on “procedural memory” which would more likely show change in the cerebellum or basal ganglia. --> mid teporal are of both hemispheres

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What conclusions can be made from Draganski's 2004 study? "

Results show that neuroplasticity occurs when the brain is exposed to new knowledge as well as when it doesn’t use learnt knowledge. This process of learning new knowledge and forming new connections is called synapse plasticity or dendritic branching where the neurons increase their branch length to connect to more neurons. The study shows this phenomenon in action when results of the MRI scan and VBM after the participants have mastered juggling showed an increase in gray matter within the brain which means increase in neurons and its density within the brain. 

Apart from synapse plasticity, neural pruning has also been demonstrated in this study as the gray matter and neuron density of participants' brains has decreased after 3 months of not juggling.

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies Does the results and conclusion of Draganski's study support or refute the idea of neuroplasticity? "The results and conclusion of Draganski's study support the existence of neuroplasticity, showing that the brain's physical structure changes as it acquires new knowledge. "
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour What is Dopamine? "

An excitatory neurotransmitter involved in motivation, controlling brain’s reward and pleasure centres, and in regulating emotional responses. (romantic love)

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour Explain neurotransmission  "

Neurotransmission is the process by which electrical and chemical signals are passed from one neuron to another. These signals have both physiological and psychological effects. Every neuron has a certain threshold of excitation received from the other neurons, and if the sum excitation exceeds the threshold, the neuron “fires” and generates an electrical pulse that travels along the body of the neuron and is called an action potential. When an action potential arrives at the axon terminal, it triggers the release of the neurotransmitter into the synaptic gap. The neurotransmitter then diffuses across the space between the two neurons and some binds to specific receptors on the membrane of the postsynaptic neuron. At this point the presynaptic neuron will reuptake the neurotransmitter or it will be metabolized in the synaptic cleft. The interaction between the neurotransmitter and receptor may either stimulate or inhibit the initiation of an action potential in the second neuron ie. it may be excitatory or inhibitory. Certain chemicals called agonists and antagonists, respectively either increase or decrease the activity of the neurotransmitter. 

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour How to fMRIs work? They measure changes in blood flow in the active brain (neural activity). When perofmring a task, the flow of oxygenated blood in whichever part of the brain is being used, increases. the signal reconstructured on the fMRI is known as the blood-oxygen level dependant signal (BOLD)
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour fMRI stands for {{c1::}} functional magnetic resonance
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour fMRI shows {{c1::}} unlike the MRI which only shows the structure of the brain actual brain activity/functinoing and indicates which areas of the brain are active when engaged in a behavior of cognitive process
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour When getting an MRI scan, participants lay in the machine and through th euse of {{c1::}} radio frequency pulses, the machine realigns hydogen atoms which give off energy. The machine records the energy emitted from the hydrogen atoms and a computer screen captures it in images, which allows researchers to see images of the size and structure of different parts of the brain. 
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour MRIs allow researchers to make conclusions about {{c1::}} the relationships between brain structure (localization/neuroplasticity) and behaviours.
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and behaviour ""
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and behaviour "Hormones may act as {{c1::neurotransmitters and attach to post-synaptic receptor sites.}}"
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and behaviour "Hormones only produce reactions in cells that have {{c1::receptors}} for the particular hormone- these are called {{c2::target cells}}."
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and behaviour
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and behaviour "Adrenaline" "

Secreted by the adrenal glands; responsible for arousal and the ""fight or flight"" response. Plays a role in emotional memory formation.

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and behaviour Cortisol "

Secreted by the adrenal glands; helps control blood sugar levels, regulate metabolism, reduce inflammation and assist with memory formation.

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and behaviour
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and behaviour

IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and behaviour "The acute stress response (also called hyperarousal, or the “fight or flight response) is a " "physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival."
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and Pheromones::Studies {{c1::Newcomer et al (1999)}} studied the {{c2::effects of stress on verbal declarative memory}}.  The contents of this study can be used for:

• Research methods used in the biological approach 
• The function of hormones in human behaviour 
• Explanation of health problems (in the health option–to address the following content)

IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and Pheromones::Studies The aim of Newcomer's reserach was to {{c1::investigate whether high levels of the stress hormone cortisol interfere with verbal declarative memory}}.
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and Pheromones::Studies What were the sample specification of Newcomer et al's 1999 study on the effects of cortisol on memory?  All participants were employees or students at the Washington University Medical Center. All participants were given a clinical interview with a physician. They were excluded from the sample if they were pregnant, had a history of mental illness, had suffered head trauma, or had suffered from an illness that had been treated with corticosteroids (synthetic cortisol pills/drug).
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and Pheromones::Studies "What was the procedure of Newcomer's (1999) ""effect of cortisol on memory""?" The researchers carried out a double blind laboratory experiment in which the participants were matched for age and gender to one of three conditions:

• Condition 1 – high levels of cortisol: The participants were given a tablet containing 160mg of cortisol on each day of the four-day experiment. This dose of cortisol produces blood levels similar to those seen in people experiencing major stress event. 
• Condition 2 – low levels of cortisol: The participants were given a tablet containing 40mg per day. This dose is similar to the amount of cortisol circulating in the bloodstream of people undergoing minor surgical procedures such as having stitches removed.
• Condition 3 – placebo group: The participants were given placebo tablets – they were the control group.

IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and Pheromones::Studies What were the results produced/inferred from Newcomer et al's 1999 study on effects of cortisol on memory? The results indicated that high cortisol levels impaired performanced in the memory task since the participants who received the highest level of cortisol also showed the worst performance in verbal declarative memory. The reserachers were also able to verify that the effect was not permanent; the performance of participants in the high cortisol condition returned to normal after they stopped taking the hormone tablet. According to the researchers, these results demonstrate a clear link between levels of cortisol and remembering. It apppears that high levels of cortisol interfered with the recall of the prose passage. 

There was no statistical difference between the low dose and palcebo groups on any day of testing and the researchers claimed that paragraph performance increased over time for the plafcebo and low dose groups because of practice effects or procedural learning. 
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and Pheromones::Studies What was the aim of McGaugh and Cahill's 1995 study?  "The aim of McGaugh and Cahill's study was to study the role of emotion on the creation of memories. "
IB Psychology The degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring.
IB Psychology Define Internal validity "

The degree to which the experiment avoids confounding variables

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IB Psychology Define external validity "The extent to which your research results apply to people and/or situations outside your experiment"
IB Psychology What is data triangulation? The use of a variety of data sources, including time, space and persons, in a study. Findings can be corroborated and any weaknesses in the data can be compensated for by the strengths of other data, thereby increasing the validity and reli- ability of the results.
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and behaviour Androstadienone (AND) is {{c1::a chemical produced in the sweat glands of male humans}}
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and behaviour Estratetraenol (EST) is {{c1::a chemical found in urine of female humans}}
IB Psychology::Research methods::Lab experiments {{c5::Lab experiments}} are designed with {{c1::one clear indepenedent variable}} (which is changed) and a {{c2::dependent variable}} (which is measured). All other factors are {{c3::controlled}} as much as possible so that a {{c4::cause-and-effect}} relationship can be established
IB Psychology::Research methods::Lab experiments A {{c1::standardized procedure}} ensures that lab experiments can be {{c2::easily replicated}} and the {{c3::reliability}} of the results and conclusions can be {{c4::verified by peers (other researchers)}}
IB Psychology::Research methods::Lab experiments A {{c1::limitation}} of {{c2::lab experiments}} is that they often lack {{c3::ecological validity}} due to the {{c4::artifical environments}} in which they are conducted
IB Psychology::Research methods::Field experiments In a {{c1::field experiment}}, the researchers manipulate the {{c2::indepenedent variable}} and measure the {{c3::dependent variable}}, but conducts the expeirment in a {{c4::real-life setting}} rather than in a laboratory. 
IB Psychology::Research methods::Field experiments {{c1::Field experiments}} although allow a cause-and-effect relationship to be established, also makes it more likely that {{c2::extraneous/confounding variables}} may affect results
IB Psychology::Research methods::Field experiments A {{c2::strength}} of a {{c3::field experiment}} is that it has {{c4::ecological validity}}, becuase it is not conducted in {{c1::an artificial setting, but instead in a real-life setting}}
IB Psychology::Research methods::Field experiments A {{c4::limitation}} of a {{c5::field experiment}} is that there are high chances of {{c3::extraneous/confounding}} variables which cannot be controlled for, causing it to have low {{c2::internal validity}} because it is conducted in a {{c1::real-life setting}}
IB Psychology::Research methods::Quasi-experiments {{c1::Quasi-experiments}} are experiments that group participants based on {{c2::pre-existing differences}}, such as {{c3::age, gender, cultural background, education, occupation, etc. }}
IB Psychology::Research methods::Quasi-experiments In a {{c1::quasi-experiment}} researcher's cannot be certain that the groups are {{c2::equivalent}} in {{c3::all other characteristics}}
IB Psychology::Research methods::Quasi-experiments In a {{c3::quasi-experiment}}, because the {{c4::independent variable}} is {{c5::pre-existing}} (and is not directly manipulated by the researcher), {{c2::cause and effect}} inferences cannot be made and the data obtained is {{c1::correlational}}. 
IB Psychology::Research methods::Natural experiments In a {{c1::natural experiment}}, researchers find {{c2::naturally occuring}} variables and study them. The IV is {{c3::not manipulated}} but occurs naturally.  for example, when TV is introduced for the 1st time to an indegenous tribe
IB Psychology::Research methods::Natural experiments {{c5::Natural experiments}} have high {{c2::ecological validity}} (because {{c3::the setting is not artifical}}), but low {{c1::internal validity}} (because {{c4::there are many confounding vairables that cannot be controlled}}). 
IB Psychology::Research methods::Natural experiments An {{c3::advantage}} of {{c4::natural experiments}} is that they can be used when it might be {{c2::unethical}} to manipulate the IV, but a disadvantage is that in general, {{c1::cause-and-effect cannot}} be established. 
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Genetics and behavior::Genes and behaviour Caspi: what was the type of study, the aim of the study, and the who as well as how many participants? Correlational study
Aim: to find evidence for whether there is gene-environment (G x E) for 5-HTT gene mutation, a serotonin transporter gene involved in the reuptake of serotonin in brain synapses.
Participants: more than 1000 New-Zealanders of mean age 26 (20s) had health checkups before the age of 21. Divided into three groups, first group having two short alleles of 5-HTT, second group one short one long of 5-HTT, the last two long 5-HTT. The mutation of the gene has the shorter alleles.
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Genetics and behavior::Genes and behaviour McDermott: What was the aim and method of the study Aim was to test whether monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) actually causes aggression.
Quasi-expeirment --> participants were not randomly allocated
The study used 70-80 male participants. Two groups, one carrying the high activity allele (MAOA-H) and one carrying the low activity allele (MAOA-L). 
The variables were operationalized/measured by the amount of hot sauce administered which demonstrates level of agression. 
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Genetics and behavior::Genetic similarity+ Kendler: What was the aim and method of the study? "The aim of the study was to to determine the role that genetics plays in major depressive disorder.
Kendler had 3 things he wanted to investigate: whether 35-45% heritability of major depression is true in a large Swedish sample, major depression affect genders equally, and find evidence for environmental factors or genetics affecting major depression over time.

Kendler conducted a correlational study on more than 15,000 twins from Swedish Twin Registry born between 19th century to mid 20th century. Only those with verified zygosity."
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Genetics and behavior::Evolutionary Explanations for Behaviour Curtis: what was the aim and method of the study? The main purpose of the study was to test the hypothesis that disgust was developed/evolved to prevent us from getting diseases. Within this hypothesis, there are 5-sub hypothesis including:

• Disgust should be faced most strongly against things with more disease-salient stimulus 
• Disgust should operate in a similar way across cultures 
• Disgust should be more pronounced in females since they have to protect their babies in addition to themselves 
• Disgust should become weaker as the individuals reproductive potential declines with age 
• Disgust should be stronger in contact with strangers than close relatives because strangers potentially an carry novel pathogens
  

IB Psychology::Biological approach::Genetics and behavior::Evolutionary Explanations for Behaviour Wedekind: What was the aim and method of the study? The aim of the study was to verify the hypothesis that people tend to favor ones with a different genetic makeup–whether one’s MHC would affect mate choice.

The study was a double blind lab experiment and consisted of 49 female and 44 male students from University of Bern, Switzerland.
IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Schema Theory Bransford and Johnson: what was the aim and method of the study? The study was a lab experiment that aimed to identify the processing stages at which the schemas are most likely to influence. 

The study used 52 participants and asked them to recall information from a prose paragraph.
However, the participants were split into 3 groups: no title, title after, and title before…
IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Schema Theory Anerson & Pitchert: what was the aim and method of the study? "The study was lab experiment with repeated measures design and consisted of 39 introductory educational psychology students. The story had 72 discreet ideas - 15 that were related to burglary and 13 that were related to purchasing a home. The participants were randomly allocated to one of two conditions: the ""robber condition"" or the ""home buyer condition."""
IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Multi-store model Glanzer and Cunitz 1966 (primacy effect): aim and method The study was a lab experiment done with independent measured design and consisted of 240 participants whom are army enlisted men.

Their aim was to investigate the serial position effect with and without interference with a repeated measures design and wanted to see if interval of time between words on a list would increase number of words recalled at the start of the list. Their hypothesis for this experiment was that the primacy effect should cause initial words to have greater recall since they have more time to rehearse it.
IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Multi-store model Murdock 1962: what was the aim and method of the study? The study was a lab experiment done with independent measures design meaning that each particpant is only part of one condition. The study consists of 103 participants who were intro psych students. 

The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the functional separation of STS (short term store) & LTS (long term store). 
IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Working memory model Warrington and Shallice 1970: what was the aim and method of the study? The study was longitudinal case study done on a patient named KF who suffered brain damage as a result of motorcycle accident. His LTM was intact but his STM was impaired: memoery limited to two units or less (seconds).

The aim of this study was to investigate how he was able to form LTM but not STM and was done by testing 2 types of memory: visual and auditorial. 
IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Working memory model Landry and Bartling 2011: aim and method The study was a lab experiment that used independent designs with two groups and consisted of 34 participants who were psychology students. 

The aim of the study was to investigate if articulatory suppression would influence recall of a written list of phonologically dissimilar letters in serial recall.
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and Pheromones::Studies McGaugh & Cahill: What are the procedures and results of this study? The participants were split into 2 conditions: the first hearing the boring story and the second hearing an emotional story

the boring story was about a woman and her son who paid a visit to the son’s father in a hospital where they witnessed the staff in a first aid drill while the emotional story was about a boy who severed his feet in a car accident and was brought to hospital to get his limbs reattatched. 

After the participants heard the story, they were told to come back 2 weeks later to answer questions related to the story.

Result showed that participants in the condition who heard the emotional story remembered specific details from the story better, and from the slides as well.
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and Pheromones::Studies What was the follow up study of McGaugh and Cahill's 1995 study?: procedure and results "In the followup study, the participants in “traumatic story” group were given a placebo or propranolol, a beta blocker that interfere with adrenaline binding at the receptors at the amygdala, effectively disabling them, preventing the formation of emotional memory.

Results showed that participants who were given the beta-blocker (who heard the emotional/traumatic story) performed no better than the group with no emotional connection."
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and behaviour What are pheromones? "

Pheromones are chemical substances that are produced and released into the environment by some animals, mostly mammals or insects, affecting the behavior or physiology of other creatures.

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and behaviour How do pheromones work? (linking to animals and humans) ""
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and behaviour What are the 4 types of pheromones? "

1. Releaser pheromones
   - Elicit an often immediate, specific, behavioral response
   
2. Signaler pheromones
   - Provide information regarding the individual
3. Modulator pheromones
   - Affect mood and emotion
4. Primer pheromones
   - Over time have an effect on endocrine and/or neuroendocrine systems related to reproductive physiology or development

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and behaviour Androstadienone (AND) is {{c1::a chemical produced in the sweat glands of male humans.}}

IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and behaviour
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and behaviour It is proposed that these are {{c2::modulator}} pheromones in humans (related to mood and emotion). 

IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and Pheromones::Studies Lundstrom and Olsson (2005): aim and method

IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and Pheromones::Studies Lundstrom and Olsson (2005): procedure and results "Procedure: The women's mood, their attention and how they rated attractiveness were tested after being exposed to either androstadienone or a control solution in the presence of either a male or female experimenter.

Results: Exposure to a non-detectable amount of androstadienone modulated women's mood in a positive direction but did not change attention performance or rating of facial attractiveness. 

Moreover, mood effects were only evident when an experimenter of the opposite sex conducted the testing.

 

Conclusion: It appears that androstadienone could play a role in women's mood depending on social context.

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and Pheromones::Studies Zhou et al 2014: Aim and method  "

Aim: Investigate the role of androstadienone and estratetraenol in conveying gender information

 

Method: The study was a double blind lab experiment which was counterbalanced and consisted of 96 participants (24 heterosexual men, 24 heterosexual women, 24 gay men and 24 lesbian women.)

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and Pheromones::Studies Zhou et al. 2014: procedure and results "

Procedure: Participants were asked to watch stick figures walking on a screen and to determine their gender. 

While carrying out the task, the participants were exposed to the smell of cloves.  

In the first condition, the cloves were mixed with androstadienone.

In the second condition, the cloves were mixed with estratetraenol.

In the control condition, only cloves were used.

Results: Smelling androstadienone biased heterosexual females and gay males, but not heterosexual males, toward perceiving the walkers as more masculine. 

By contrast, smelling estratetraenol biases heterosexual males and lesbian women toward perceiving the walkers as more feminine. 

Conclusion: The researchers concluded that pheromones influence communication of gender information in a sex-specific manner.

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Hormones and Pheromones::Studies A study in which the findings contradict Zhou et al's 2014 study was {{c1::Hare et al's 2017}} study: what was this study's AMPRC? "

Aim: Investigate the role of androstadienone and estratetraenol on gender perception, attractiveness ratings or unfaithfulness judgements

Method: Lab experiment (participants randomly allocated) with two different tasks

Task 1 = 46 heterosexual caucasians (24 male and 22 female)

Task 2 = 94 heterosexual caucasians (43 male and 51 female)

Repeated measure design for both tasks and a double blind procedure

Procedure Task 1: 

• Day 1 (control) not given scent  
• Day 2 (experimental) given scents of androstadienone with clove oil (given to female participants) or estratetraenol with clove oil (given to male participants) 
• On both days, indicate the gender (male or female) of five gender-neutral facial morphs on a computer 

Results Task 1: 

Exposure to pheromones had no effect on gender perception

Procedure Task 2: 

• Day 1 (control) not given scent 
• Day 2 (experimental) given scents of androstadienone with clove oil (given to female participants) or estratetraenol with clove oil (given to male participants) 
• On both days rate photographs of opposite-sex faces for attractiveness and probable sexual unfaithfulness

Results Task 2: 

Exposure to pheromones had no effect ratings of attractiveness or probable sexual unfaithfulness

Conclusion:

If human sex pheromones affect our judgements of gender, attractiveness or unfaithfulness from faces, they are unlikely to be AND or EST. They concluded that AND and EST are unlikely to be human pheromones.

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Genetics and behavior::Genes and behaviour Caspi 2003: Procedure and results "Each participant was separated based on whether they contained the 5-HTT gene with double short, one short one long, or double long alleles. 
Participants had to do a qualitative questionnaire and were asked of the stressful events during their 21-26 age times from 14 groups such as health, financial, housing, relationships, etc. Then, each participant was assessed for depression over a phone call with a psychologist and a psychiatrist. "
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Genetics and behavior::Genes and behaviour McDermott 2009: Procedure and results "

Participants did a simulation in which they were asked to administer hot sauce to fictional opponents who they were told don’t like hot sauce (this was the supposed aggressive behaviour). 

In each round they were told that their opponent had taken a portion of their earnings/money and they could punish their opponent by administering hot sauce. 

The money taken each round was different as it went from 0%, to 20%, to 80%. 

Results showed that individuals with MAOA-L were significantly more likely to administer the hot sauce compared to MAOA-H when 80% of their earnings were taken. When it was only 20% however, the difference between MAOA-H and MAOA-L administering hot sauce was minimal. 

The researchers concluded that, with evidence of gene-environment interaction, individuals with MAOA-L would more likely demonstrate aggressive behaviour when provoked through the environment than compared to those with MAOA-H. 

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Genetics and behavior::Genetic similarity+ Kendler 2009: Procedure and results Since 1998 to 2003, trained interviewers assessed participants of major depression by using the modified DSM-IV criteria on the telephone. The interviewers also asked whether the participants lived in a shared environemnt such as a house and also about their individual specific environment such as personal life events. 

Results showed that concordance rates for major depression is higher in women than men; similarly concordance rates of monozygotics (MZ) are also higher than dizygotic (DZ) twins. However, there was no correlation between number of years twins had lived together and lifetime major depression. Nevertheless data produced showed heritability of major depression is estimated to be 0.38 which is in line with previous research.  [results were replicated]
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Genetics and behavior::Evolutionary Explanations for Behaviour Curtis et al 2004: Procedure and results "

Participants had to rate a total of 20 photographs from disgust scale of 1-5; 1 being not disgusting at all and 5 being very disgusting. Of the 20 photographs, 7 pairs were paired complimentary by disease salience as similar as possible while the other 3 pairs were used as controls; an example of a disease salience image used in the study was a towel with reddish-yellow liquid resembling blood or bodily secretions which was paired with another image with a towel with blue liquid. 

In order to answer their fifth hypothesis, the researchers added an extra question asking “with whom would you like to share a toothbrush?”. 

Results were found to be consistent cross-culturally and showed that disease-salient stimuli were rated as more disgusting than less salient ones and for all disease salient stimuli images with average scores of 3.9 and 1.6 respectively. In addition all females rated the disease-salient pictures as more disgusting than men, there was an age-based decline in the sensitivity to disease-salient stimuli, and the answers to the toothbrush question favoured family and loved ones. All the results presented above proved all 5 hypotheses to be true and researchers concluded that disgust is a biologically based response to disease salient saltines stimuli that reduces the risk of disease infections which is an evolutionary advantage for survival. 

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Genetics and behavior::Evolutionary Explanations for Behaviour Wedekind 1995: procedure and results "Male participants were told to use the same t-shirt for 2 days while also refraining from alcohol, smoking, sexual activity, and using perfume. Male participants had to use given perfume-free detergents to wash their clothes and perfume-free soap for showering as they slept alone for 2 whole days. Lastly, they were also told to avoid any odour-producing foods.

On the other hand, female participants were given a copy of Suskind’s Perfume novel to read to sensitise their smell perception which they were then tested whenever possible 2 weeks after menstruation. Female participants had to use a nose spray for 14 days to prevent colds or flu and regenerate nasal mucus before the experiment. The shirts of the male participants were then put into boxes and the female participants were asked to rank from 0-10 (pleasantness and sexiness), 0 being not at all, 10 being very much, and 5 being neutral, of the attraction of the smell from the boxes.

Results showed that MHC may influence mate choice as female participants preferred scents of MHC-dissimilar men. "
IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Schema Theory Bransford and Johnson 1972: procedure and result
IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Schema Theory Anderson and Pichert 1978: aim and method "The study was a lab experiment which used repeated measures design and consisted of 39 participants who are intro psych students. 

The aim was to investigate the potential role of schema on the encoding and recall of a story. The researchers wanted to see if people would remember more details about a story based on their assigned perspective - either a robber or a house buyer.
The study indicates that schema may play a role in both encoding and recall of information."
IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Schema Theory Anderson and Pichert 1978: procedure and results "The participants were given two minutes to read a story and were asked to recall as much detail as possible from 72 discreet ideas, 12 related to purchasing a house and 13 related to burglary. The participants were split into 2 conditions, each of which have to read the story in two different perspectives: either as a homebuyer or as the buglar. 
They were given two minutes to read the story as a prospective burglar or a prospective home buyer. Then they were given 12 minutes to take an 84 item vocabulary test. This was both a distractor task and control for their language proficiency. They were then asked to ""write down as much of the exact story as you can."" It was emphasized that they needed to write down every bit of the story that they could remember. 
When they finished writing, they were given five minutes to do a spatial puzzle test. Then they were asked to recall the story a second time. Half were told to do some from the same perspective that they used in the first recall; the other half were told to recall from the other perspective.

• Burglar information was better recalled than homebuyer information. This may be because students do not have a well-developed homebuyer schema. In other words, it is likely that the schema influenced encoding.
• The group that had the burglar perspective recalled more burglar information and the group that had the homebuyer perspective recalled more homebuyer information. In other words, it is likely that the schema influenced retrieval.
• Participants who changed their perspective recalled an additional 7.1% of the information relevant to their new perspective. The group that did not change perspective recalled 2.9% less information relevant to their perspective.

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IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Schema Theory Describe Schema theory "

Schema theory is a theory that supports the existence of a schema. A schema is a cognitive structure that provides a framework for organising information about the world, events, people, and actions (knowledge, beliefs, and expectation). Schemas work autonomously which means that it will activate and function unconsciously. Schemas are dynamic as they develop, change, and build off of each other based on new information and experiences; they guide how we interpret new information and can be very powerful in their influence. There are three main types of schemas called Self, Social, and Script schemas. Schema theory also suggests that humans a re active processors of information as it presents 2 types of processing: Top-down processing (occurs when prior knowledge or expectation acts as a lens or a filter for information that an individual receives and process) and Bottom-up processing (occurs when perception is not biassed by prior knowledge or expectations; it is a case of “pure” information processing based on reality as it is). Although schemas have positive purposes such as organising information and regulating behaviour, they may also create distortions and make mistakes when the individual is in an unfamiliar situation. 

A study that tests the function of schema theory is Bransford and Johnson’s 1972 study.

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IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Multi-store model Describe the multi-store model of memory "

The multi-store model of memory was proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin during 1968 which stated that memory consists of a number of separate stores and that memory processes are sequential. The multi-store consists of 3 types of store: Sensory stores, short-term stores (STS), and long-term stores (LTS). Sensory stores are where information from the senses goes and is believed to have unlimited capacity BUT for a very short duration; STS is where information that has received attention goes and has very limited capacity & limited duration; LTS is where information that was well rehearsed goes and is believed to have unlimited capacity & can last a lifetime. LTS uses a semantic code (code based on meaning) which stores information based on the meaning of the information processed. Each type of memory differs between their duration: Sensory lasting for only 1 second, STS for 5-9 seconds, and LTS for unlimited duration. 

A study that provides insights to the multi-store model of memory is Glanzer and Cunitz’s 1966 study. 

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IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Multi-store model Glanzer and Cunitz 1966 (primacy effect): procedure and results

• Each word read once at a 3-second rate
• Each word read twice in succession at a 3-second rate
• Each word read once at a 6-second rate
• Each word read twice in succession at a 6-second rate
• Each word read once at a 9-second rate
• Each word read twice in succession at a 9-second rate

IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Multi-store model Murdock 1962: procedure and results

• 20 words read at one-second intervals (20 - 1)
• 30 words read at one-second intervals (30 - 1)
• 40 words read at one-second intervals (40 - 1)
• 10 words read at two-second intervals (10 - 2)
• 15 words read at two-second intervals (15 - 2)
• 20 words read at two-second intervals (20 - 2)

IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Working memory model Warrington and Shallice (1970): procedure and results ""
IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Working memory model Landry and Bartling 2011: procedure and results "The 34 psychology students (participants) were split into 2 conditions: the experimental group and the control group. The participants were tested individually. In the experimental group, participants first saw a list of letters that they had to recall while saying the numbers '1' and '2' at a rate of two numbers per second (the articulatory suppression task). The control group saw the list of letters but did not engage in an articulatory suppression task.

There were ten lists each consisting of a series of 7 letters randomly constructed from the letters F, K, L, M, R, X and Q that don't sound similar. The participants received an answer sheet with seven blanks in each row. Before the experiment started, each participant viewed one practice list in order to become acquainted with the procedure. 

The results showed that the scores from the experimental group were much lower than the scores from the control group. The mean percentage of accurate recall in the control group was 76% compared to a mean of 45% in the experimental group. 
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IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Working memory model Landry and Bartling 2011: conclusion "

The results supported the experimental hypothesis as the mean percent of accurate recall in the control group was higher than the mean percent of accurate recall in the experimental group. 

The data seems to support the prediction of the Working Memory Model that disruption of the phonological loop through the use of articulatory suppression results in less accurate working memory. In line with the model's prediction, articulatory suppression is preventing rehearsal in the phonological loop because of overload. This resulted in difficulty in memorizing the letter strings for participants in the experimental conditions whereas the participants in the control condition did not experience such overload.

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IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What did the participants in Crockett's study have to do? Participants were given a series of moral dilemmas that involved choosing between a utilitarian outcome (saving lives) and aversive harmful actions (such as killing an innocent person). Aversive harmful actions in the scenarios were of two tyoes: personal (for example, pushing a man off a bridge) and impersonal (for example, pulling a lever to divert a train off track in which it would hit five poeple, to a track whre it would hist just one person). 
IB Psychology::Biological approach::Brain and behaviour::Studies What was the procedure of Maguire's 2000 study?  Maguire, a neuropsychologist, conducted a quasi-expeirment on 16 right handed male taxi drivers with at least 1 year and a half of experience and 50 helathy right handed male non-taxi drivers by having them do a structural Magnetic Resononance Imaging (MRI) scan to compare thier brain structure. 
IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Working memory model Describe the working memory model "The working memory model (WMM) proposed by Baddeley and Hitch, consists of STS and LTS simmilar to the multi-store model but states that the STS consists of four more sub categories: Central executive, phonological loop, episodic buffer, and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. The central executive acts as the manager for all the other 3 sub categories and allocates memory within the model as it decides how to divide attention between two or more tasks that need to be done simultaneously or how to switch attention back and forth bewtween multiple tasks. The phonological loop consits of 2 parts: auditory information, the inner ear, and the articulatory process, the inner voice. The visuo-spatial sketchpad consists of the inner scribe and visual cache which briefly holds some visual images and allows you to produce visual and spacial information/memory. Lastly, the episodic buffer is dedicated to linking information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information with time sequencing (or episodic chronological ordering), such as the memory of a story or a movie scene. The episodic buffer is also assumed to have links to long-term memory and semantic meaning.

[In short, the central executive distributes attention amongst the 3 sub categories of WMM: phonological loop (auditory memory), visuo-spatial sketchpad (visual memory), and episodic buffer (event/episodic memory).] 

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IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Multi-store model Glanzer and Cunitz 1966 (recency effect): aim and method The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of delays on recall to specifically look into recency effect. 

The study was a lab experiment done with repeated measures design and consisted of 46 participants who were army enlisted men. 
The participants were split into 3 conditions: immediate recall, delayed recall 1 (10 seconds), and delayed recall 2 (30 seconds).
IB Psychology::Cognitive approach::Multi-store model Glanzer and Cunitz 1966 (recency effect): procedure and results "

• Immediate recall
• Delayed recall (10 seconds)
• Delayed recall (30 seconds)

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