AP Hug final for Semester 1 Module 1-4
Module 1
Topographic maps show elevation and distance with a 3 dimensional representation.
Cartographer makes maps
Maps use a spatial perspective to show spacial patterns
Maps are the result of data aggregation which is the process of collecting and organizing large amounts of data.
Time distance decay states that near things are more related than distant things, and interaction between 2 places decreases when they are farther apart.
Map symbols help organize information on a map.
Legend explains meaning of map symbols.
Compass direction is absolute direction.
Map scale relates how distance on the map relates to distance in reality.
Relative distance measures the level of social, cultural, or economic similarity between places despite their absolute distance from each other which is measured in unit length.
Relative direction describes position or movement like left or right.
Reference maps emphasize geographic locations on Earth's surface.
Thematic maps emphasize spatial patterns of geographic statistics.
Choropleth map shows data aggregated for a specific geographic area.
Dot density maps show density differences in geographic distributions.
Mercator projection has lines connecting points on the map that represent true compass direction.
Peters projection shows all land masses with true areas but distorts the shapes.
Goode homolosine projection avoids shape distortion by creating interruption in the map’s continuity.
Robinson projection is the most visually appealing by keeping all types of distortions.
Spatial perspective is an outlook that explains the uses of space, and show spatial patterns which is the placement or arrangement of objects on Earth’s surface.
A cartogram distorts geographic shape to show the size of a specific variable.
Module 2
Some people organize data individually while others work for larger organizations and usually have a larger budget for collecting data.
Census is an official count or survey of a population. Usually records various details about individuals.
Absolute location is a precise position on Earth’s surface.
Geo spatial technology refers to the equipment used to measure Earths land and features. This includes GPS, GIS, and remote sensing.
Geographers sometimes use interviews, questionnaires, mechanical devices, field observations, and photo analysis to collect data.
The data geographers gather can guide companies, governments, and the public on geographic issues and help them make informed decisions.
Google maps finds your absolute location by using an invisible on earths surface consisting of latitude and longitude lines.
Latitude lines are horizontal.
Longitude lines are vertical.
Zero degree longitude is known as prime meridian, so longitude is measured as the degree of distance east or west of the prime meridian.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of 24 satellites that orbit earth to gather data about your location.
A geographic information system (GIS) is a software application for capturing, storing, checking, and displaying data related to positions on Earths surface.
Remote sensing is the scanning of Earth by satellites to obtain information about it.
These help us see night lights around the world to figure out things like which country has more industry than others and which country has a higher level of income per person to spend on electricity.
Google maps use satellite imagery or images of Earths surface from sensors on satellites.
Census data can show how people go about their daily lives. Usually taken every 10 years.
Satellite dat a can help better understand how the Earth is changing. It can show where people live and how much energy they use.
Satellite data has given local and national governments better access to information and a better way to monitor their delivery of services to communities.
Aerial photography produces high resolution images mostly done by drone aircrafts to replace fixed wing aircraft.
Module 3
Relative location means the position of one place in relation to another place. Like GPS telling us how to get to where we want to go.
Space is the areas we occupy as humans; no value until occupyed
Place is how we modify space based on who we are as a group of people.
Cultural Landscape means the built forms that cultural groups create in inhabiting Earth-farm, fields, cities- and the meaning, values, and representations associated with those forms.
Space and place produce and reveal elements of social life.
Time space compression is the decreasing distance between places as measured by travel time or cost; known as “the world is shrinking”.
Interdependence refers to the ties established between regions and countries that over time create a global economic system.
Interdependence does not mean equality, it is a 2 way flow of goods, money, and people that createss dependencies at both ends of the connection.
Globalization means culture is becoming more global than local, meaning more groups of people are becoming more alike.
Geographic processes are the physical and human forces that work together to form and transform the world. Including clothing made in a factory is a country and sold in another country.
Diffusion the pattern by which a phenomenon such as the movement of people or their ideas spreads from a particular location through space and time.
Studying diffusion can help geographers trace how spatial patterns emerge and evolve.
Independent invention occurs when the same innovation is developed at the same time in different place by different people.
Expansion diffusion occurs when ideas or practices spread throughout a population from area to area in a snowballing process so that the number of people and areas increase. It also has 3 subtypes: Hierarchical, Contagious, and Stimulus diffusion.
Hierarchical diffusion occurs when ideas leapfrog from one important person or community to another bypassing persons or communities.
Contagious diffusion involves a wavelike spread of ideas in manner of a contagious disease.
Stimulus diffusion occurs when a specific trait is rejected, but the idea is accepted.
Relocation diffusion occurs when individuals or groups with practice migrate from one place to another, bringing the idea to their knew homeland.
3 important concepts of geographic flow are globalization, time-space compression, and interdependence.
Modern technological age allows almosts an instantaneous flow, or diffusion.
Spatial pattern is the placement of objects on Earths surface but also includes the space between them. It can show how densely populated a place is or where businesses are.
Diffusion tends to weaken as an innovation moves away from its point of origin.
Time-space compression, mass media, and new communication and transportation technologies have accelerated diffusion.
Friction of distance is the inhibiting effect of distance of the intensity of most forms of human interaction.
Module 4
Cultural ecology studies the interaction between societes and their local environments.
Ecology is the study of complex relationships among living organisms and their environment.
Ecosystem means territorially bounded system consisting of interaction between humans and the environment.
Ecosystems can be affected by individuals and larger scale political, economic, and social forces.
One country’s desire for a certain thing can affect the environment in another region.
Environmental perception are the mental images that comprise humans’ perception of nature.
Geographers sometimes focus of natural hazards, physical dangers present in nature.
Natural resources are materials that occur in nature and can be used for economic gain, like minerals, water, and fertile land.
Nonrenewable resources are natural resources that are available on Earth in finite quantities including natural gases.
Renewable resources are natural resources that are available on Earth that replenish over time including the sun, wind, and water.
Societies depend on, adapt to, and modify the physical environment.
Greenhouse gases are compounds in the atmosphere that absorb and trap heat close to earths surface.
Human behavior can have negative effects of the environment.
The global warming trend caused by rising levels of CO2 is the greenhouse effect.
Environmental sustainability is a set of practices that meet the needs of the present without compromising future generations ability to meet their needs.
Environmental determinism is the belief that the environment is the dominant force shaping cultures and humanity is a product of its physical surroundings
Environmental determinism overemphasizes the role of the environment and leads to overgeneralizations of regions. Like humans are clay molded by the environment.
The environment still has effects on us like it gives us food to survive.
Possibilism is the belief that any environment offers many possible ways for society to develop and humans can find ways to overcome environmental challenges.
The physical environment offers oppurtunities and limitations in possibilism.
Possibilists believe that humans are smart and will figure out ways to overcome challenges the environment provides.
Module 5
Geographic scale is the extent of the area under investigation.
Different scales of analysis provide different insights like local scale, national scale, regional scale, and global scale. They also reveal spatial patterns and the processes that create them.
Geographic scale is different from map scale.
Global scale looks at geographic phenomena across the entire world.
Global scale can show that even isolated people are usually connected with people elsewhere in the world.
Regional scale analysis identitfies and analyzes geographic phenomena within a particular region.
National scale analysis dentifies and analyzes geographic phenomena within a specific country.
Local scale analysis dentifies geographic phenomena within a state, city, or town.
Local scale maps show more detail than smaller scale maps.
Different scale reveal important spatial patterns and the processes that create them.
Glocal perspective acknowledges the 2 way relationship between local communities and global patterns
Advocates of glocalization call for the forces of globalization to take into account local scale cultural, economic, and environmental conditions.
People recognized that global environmental problems such as pollution and energy depletion, required local solutions. But now they say both global and local solutions.
Module 6
A region is a geographical unit based on one or more unifying characteristics, functions, or patterns of activity that are taking place.
A formal region is a geographical area inhabited by people who have one or more traits in common.
Geographers use formal regions to map spatial differences throughout the world.
A border zone is where foods, languages, and other cultural markers overlap and blend into a recognizable border culture.
Functional region is a geographic area that has been organized to function politically as one unit.
Functional regions have nodes which are central points where the functions of a functional region are coordinated and directed.
Functional regions often do not coincide spatially with formal regions.
A perceptual region is a geographic area that is perceived to exist by its inhabitants, based on the widespread acceptance and use of a unique regional name,
Perceptual regions are identified by the people living in a region specifically using the language of the region.
For example you might eat southern food when having a specific food or drink popular there.
Formal and functional regions lacks a sense of belonging meaning is it is less meaningful to people.
Sense of place is how a person feels about a place and why it is important to them.
Activity space is where a person goes and what he or she does on a day to day basis.
A mental map is a way that an individual identifies a specific region, is a personal representation of a portion of Earths surface.
Regional identity is the awareness of belonging to a group of people within a region.
It could mean being from a specific ethnic group
Contested boundaries are boundaries that are disputed for religious, political, or cultural reasons.
Regional analysis examines patterns and processes within and between regions at multiple geographic scales.
It looks at the world in terms of different formal, functional, or vernacular regions.
Unit 2 Module 7
Population distribution is the pattern in which humans are spread out on Earth’s Surface
Eurasia is a massive piece of land on Earth that consists of Europe and Asia.
Ecumene is the portion of Earth’s surface with permanent human settlement.
Population clusters are heavily populated areas that illustrate the unevenness in global distribution.
Population clusters include south asia, east asia, southeast asia, and europe since these cluster have nearly ⅔ of the worlds population but less that 20% of Earth’s land area.
Megacity is a city with more than 10 million residents.
Metacity is a city with more than 20 million residents.
People live mostly near bodies of water.
China and india have the biggest populations.
A Developed country is country with and advanced economy and a high standard of living.
A Developing country is country that is economically poorer than developed countries.
Population changes in these countries can affect global population growth trends and distribution.
The Snow Belt are states located in the northern and midwestern parts of the country.
The Sunbelt are states in the coastal areas and the South and Southwest.
The mean center of population is the balancing point given the distribution of population.
Both physical and human factors contribute to the spatial patterns of population distribution.
Physical as in elevation and bodies of water because people live at lower elevations and are closer to bodies of water.
Human factors like economic development, culture, and technological advances.
Population density is the average number of people per unit of land area.
Arithmetic density is the same as population density and calculated by dividing total population by its land area.
Arithmetic density can be misleading because it doesn’t show how the population in distributed.
Physiological density is the average number of people per unit area of arable land.
Arable land is land suitable for cultivation.
Agricultural density is the number of farmers per unit of arable land.
Population density has environmental consequences and political.
Carrying capacity is the number of people a particular environment or Earth can support on a sustainable basis.
Human well-being is known as the state of being comfortable, healthy, or happy.
Density may affect peoples health as more densly populated areas tend to have diseases spread faster.
Module 8
Population composition is the makeup of the population by age, sex, ethnic, racial, income.
The age structure refers to the breakdown of a populationn into different age groups or cohorts
Age structure varies among countries.
Populations age structure can help to estimate how many people of different ages need support.
Dependency ratio is the number of dependents in a population that each 100 working age people must support. It has both youth dependency and elderly dependency.
Generations are groups of people who were born around the same time and share some common traits due to cultural and societal influes they grew up with. There is the millennials, gen x, the baby boomer gen, the silent gen, and the GI gen.
The GI gen is made of Americans born before 1924, was in the Great depression, and fought in WWII.
Silent gen consists of people born between 1924 and 1945 and consider law and order important.
Baby Boomers were born between 1946 and 1964 after war people were encouraged to have more children.
Gen X were born between 1965 and 1980. They are in their prime working years.
Gen Y were born between 1981 and 2000. They are the most educated and they grew uup with phones and internet.
After those are Gen Z.
Another aspect of population is sex ratio which is the ratio of the number of men to number of women in a population.
Sex ration differs across age groups.
Some cultures prefer males which is called androcentrism.
Gender selective migration causes gender imbalance like mining attracts men to migrate.
War also causes an unbalanced sex ratio because men die in war more than women.
With an unbalanced sex ratio, it is harder for men to find female partners.
Infanticide is the practice of killing infants.
A population pyramid is a useful graphic device for comparing age and sex structure.
It can speak about the country’s past and future.
Population pyramid can help geographers learn how a population is growing or shrinking.
It can have rapid growth, slow growth, stability, and decline.
Module 9
Demographic equation is the method for calculating total population of a country based on natural increase and migration over a period of time.
Most of the population growth will happen in developing countries.
Crude birth rate is the average number of births per 1000 people: the traditional way of measuring birth rates.
Both men and women are included in the population.
Places that have more women will have a higher CBR.
A low birth rate is a crude birth rate between 10 and 20 births per 1000 people.
A transitional birth rate is a crude birth rate between 20 and 30 births per 1000 people.
A high birth rate is a crude birth rate of more than 30 per 1000 people.
The total fertility rate is the average number of children born per woman during her reproductive lifetime, from 15 to 49 years of age.
A replacement level fertility is the average number of children needed to replace both parents and stabilize population over time. Usually 2.1
Countries with a TFR of 2.0 or lower will experience population decline.
A country that has more agriculture will need more children for farm labor.
Some religions encourage having more children.
Women who work more tend to have fewer children.
Gender roles are culturally specific notions of what it means to be a man or woman.
Some governments try to curtail population growth.
Crude death rate is the number of deaths per year per 1000 people.
Countries that have more old people will have a higher CDR.
Infant mortality rate is a measure of how many infants die within the first year of their life per 1000 live births.
Child Mortality are the deaths of children under five years of age.
Rate of natural increase is the difference between the number of births and deaths in a year, when expressed as a percentage of total population.
Zero population growth is when a country has the same number of births and deaths in a year, its rate of natural increase is zero.
ZPG can result in older people and fewer working age people.
Doubling time is the number of years it takes for a population to double in size
Rule of 70 is a tool for calculating the doubling time of a population by dividing 70 by a country’s rate of natural increase.
Module 10
Demographic transition model is how crude birth rate, crude death rate and rate of natural increase change over time as countries go through industrialization and urbanization.
DTM shows countries move from high birth and death rates and slow or zero population growth to the rates being low and population grows slowly again.
There are 5 different stages. High stationary, early expanding, late expanding, low stationary, and natural decrease.
Early expanding the death rates decline.
Late expanding birth rates decline.
Low stationary birth rates and death rates are similar.
Natural decrease the deaths are more than births.
Sometimes a country does not follow the model’s prediction.
Some countries can skip a stage.
Epidemiological transition theory seeks to explain how changes in health services and living standards affect patterns of disease.
Epidemiology studies distribution, determinants, and control of other diseases and health condition.
There are 3 phases to it.
The age of pestilence and famine is marked by outbreaks of deadly diseases and high death rates.
The age of receding pandemics is characterized by rapid declines in death rates as result of improvements in sanitation and medicine.
The age of degenerative and Human made diseases is when mortality rates decline and then stabilize. Major cause of death are diseases.
The age of delayed degenerative diseases reflects improvements in medical technology for treating degenrative diseases.
Module 11
Malthusian comes from Thomas Robert Malthus to mean follower of Malthus or relating to Malthus’s theory.
He said that population would grow exponentially while production would increase arthimetically or one by one.
At some point there would not be enough food to feed the population.
It is a vicious cycle.
There are bad outcomes of overpopulation which is when the population exceeds the food supply.
Malthus believed that men should postpone marriage until able to support a family.
People who today subscribe to the Malthusian view of population are called neo-Malthusians.
Neo-Malthusians say they must decrease population growth through strict family planning an birth control policies.
Anti-Malthusians are people who disagree with the Malthusian view of population and resources.
It emphasizes that rapid population growth can cause problems. But people will find ways to cope.
The Boserup effect is an increase in food production resulting from the use of new farming methods. Usually expensive
Boserup argued that we can manage to keep the food supply a few steps ahead of population growth.
Julian simon states that we don’t have to worry about running out of fossil fuels.
The malthusian prediction was wrong and we actually have more grain production than we need. The world is producing enough food to feed 10 billion people.
Rate of population growth has also slowed causing the Malthusian theory to be wrong.
Many kids die of diseases, bad sanitation and lack of food.
Because the predictions of pessimists didn’t happen doesn’t mean it can’t happen later on.
Developing countries will have the most population growth.
Different countries have different carrying capacities thats why more people are in one country than in another.
Module 12
Antinatalist policies are designed to curtail population growth by reducing fertility rates.
People think of it as a negative thing as there might not be enough food to sustain the population.
Chinese women had many children and they saw population growth. So china had a birth control policy for couples to delay childbirth. They made a “one couple one child policy”.
This policy causes an imbalanced sex ratio.
Pronatalist policies are designed to boost fertility rates and ultimately population growth.
Countries like russia that have a population decrease try to increase fertility.
Module 13
Women's status is the degree of equality between men and women with respect access to and control over both physical and social resources in the family, community, or society.
The increased autonomy of women to make choices and shape their lives is called women's empowerment.
Gender roles are closely tied to the number of children that couples produce.
Women are less likely to have more babies if they have a job and become educated.
But they can balance it.
Economic activities may encourage women to delay marriage.
Better educated mothers have more knowledge about hygiene and nutrition and medical treatment.
Migrant women can have more modern ideas and have more opportunities for education.
Module 14
Aging Population is a population of a country that ages as the number of its elderly people increases.
There are 2 measures of population aging: median age and the proportion of elderly people.
The median age is the age that divides a population into 2 halves so that one half is younger than the other.
It can show if the population consists of more young or older people.
The proportion of the number of elderly people shows how many old people there are.
Graying is the process of countries getting older.
Developed countries have more elderly than developing countries.
When the number of seniors expands and not enough babies are born then the population grays.
Fertility slump is a reason for population aging.
As fertility rates decline people have a longer life expectancy.
Age selective migration can increase population aging.
Aging population can lead to fewer young taxpayers to support them.
Graying can lead to slower economic growth and a smaller economy.
It can also lead to population decline.
People can lessen the consequences of aging by boosting fertility, manage the labor shortage, and adapt to the aging society.
They can use robots to ease labor shortage.
Module 15
Spatial mobility is all forms of geographical movement, including people’s everyday commuting and travels
Social upward mobility is mobility that implies a change in social hierarchy
Migration is the long term relocation of individuals, families, or entire communities from one place to another.
A migrant is a person who migrates.
A person's location before migration is origin.
Destination is the place were the migrant is going
The migrant is an out migrant from the origin but an in migrate to the destination.
Emigration is the act of a migrant leaving their country.
Immigration is the act of a migrant arriving at their destination country.
Migration stream is the flow of all migrants from an origin to a destination. Counter stream is the opposite.
The difference between the number of in-migrants and out-migrants is net migration.
Net migration rate can be calculated by dividing the net migration by its total population, then multiplying by 1000.
Ernst Georg Ravenstein made a set of laws of migration.
Migration age profile is the relatively stable relationship between the odds of migration and age across countries.
People out of college around 25 migrate the most as they try to find a job.
Brain drain is a phenomenon where a country loses young and skilled people through migration. Brain gain is when a country gains.
Push pull theory of migration is a theory asserting that 2 contrasting sets of factors are at work in migration decisions. Push factors cause people to move somewhere else. Pull factors make a place appealing.
Human migration can also happen as a result of disease outbreaks.
Intervening obstacles are a complication that potential migrants will need to overcome to reach a destination.
One of them is distance and another is the legal environment.
Social networks are people’s friends and relatives.
An intervening opportunity is an attractive place that is closer that migrants may decide to settle in.
Module 16
Voluntary migration is migration that is done willingly
There is international migration,internal migration, Step migration, chain migration, return migration, and seasonal migration.
International migration refers to moves that are made across national borders.
A guest worker is a person with temporary permission to work in another country.
Transitional migration is when migrants move back and forth between their home countries and those to which they have migrated.
Internal migration refers when people move within the borders of a country.
The Great migration is the 20th century movement of 6 million African Americans from states to midwestern cities.
Rural to urban migration is when people move from the countryside to cities
Residential mobility are moves that occur within a metropolitan area.
Step migration is migration carried out in a series of stages, usually from nearby to bigger and more distant places.
Chain migration is the process by which some people’s migration to a new place leads to their family members, friends, and others to move to the same place.
Return migration is igrants going back, or returning, to their previous place of origin.
The Black Belt is the ethnic homeland in the U.S South.
Seasonal migration is migration based on the time of year
Transhumance is where herders and their livestock move seasonally between their summer and winter pastures.
Mobility transitional model is Wilburs conclusion that there are regularities in migration as an essential component of a country’s modernization process.
Circulation is short term and cyclical movement that occurs repeatedly on a regular basis.
Premodern societies little migration occurs, early transitional societies more circulation happens.
Late transitional,migration and emigration decrease, and advanced more people movve from rural to urban areas.
Superadvanced may not require mobility to migrate.
Migration caused by forces out of conntrol: disasters, social conflicts, developmental projects is forced migration
A Refugee is a person who leaves their country because of persecution based on race, religion, or nationality.
An internally displcaed person is someone who remains within his or her country’s borders despites being persecuted.
Ethnic cleansing is the forced removal of one ethnic group to create an ethnically consistent territory.
Most refugees flee from some armed conflict:wars, insurgencies.
Repatriated is when refugees return to their home country.
Module 17
Migration has demographic, economic, political, and social effects.
Immigration adds population while emigration reduces it. This is important for developed countries because their natural increase is low and they need to grow.
Migration from low employment countries to high employment countries increases labor supply in high wage areas but reduces it in low wage areas. The low wage areas can lose many skilled workers.
Migration can change politically like changing the cultural identity of countries.
Migtration can spread culture, innovations, and also diseases.
Diaspora refers to involuntary mass dispersions of a population from its home territory.
People can flee because of wars and other conflicts.
Module 18
Cultural traits can be identified from architecture, land use, and food preferences.
The long lot settlement pattern is a linear settlement pattern in which each farmstead is situated at one end of a long, narrow rectangular lot. Each plot of land has access to a major linear resource.
Material culture is the physical objects made and used by members of a cultural group, like buildings, food, and clothing.
Nonmaterial culture is the intangible wide range of beliefs, values, myths, and symbolic meanings passed from generation to generation within a given society.
A cultural trait is a single aspect of a given culture or society.
Local Culture is a Rural, ethnically homogenous culture that is deeply connected to the local land
Indigenous culture is a local culture that is no longer the dominant ethnic group within its traditional homeland because of migration or colonization.
Popular culture is a heterogeneous culture that is more influenced by key urban areas and quick to adopt new technologies; opposite of local culture.
Cultural attitudes are concepts and ideas in a society that are shaped by cultural opinions, beliefs, and perspectives.
Language is a mutually agreed-upon system of symbolic communication.
A Polyglot is a person who is fluent in more than two languages.
Religion is a structured set of beliefs and practices through which people seek mental and physical harmony with the powers of the universe.
Ethnic group is a group of people of common ancestry and cultural tradition; characterized by a strong feeling of group identity.
Race is historically defined by the physical characteristics of a group, especially skin color.
Race and ethnicity leave a mark on the cultural landscape.
Ethnic geography is the study of the spatial aspects of ethnicity.
Multiculturalism is A set of policies that promote the active participation and inclusion of minority groups in national histories and national politics, with the goal of having differences in society.
Ethnocentric approach is an approach to understanding other cultures that evaluates them from the perspective of the observer’s culture.
Cultural relativism is an approach to understanding other cultures that seeks to understand individuals and cultures from a wider perspective of cultural logic.
Module 19
Landscapes include physical, industrial, agricultural, and architectural features.
Physical landscape is all the natural physical surroundings that create and shape the places we are living in or examining.
The economic activities can create markers on the landscape such as factories, malls, hospitals, and grocery stores.
Placelessness is the feeling resulting from the standardization of the built environment.
This can occur where many places end up with similar cultural landscapes.
Agricultural features are the dominant feature of the rural landscape.
They can evoke a sense of place.
Architectural features can be local or more widespread.
Modernist architecture is a functional, rational, and orderly style for building designs.
Postmodern architecture is a design style that is a reaction against modernist architecture.
Sequent occupance refers to the fact that many places have been controlled or affected by a variety of groups over a period of time. Those groups have reshaped the meanings of those places.
Ethnic an racial landscapes differ from landscapes of another country.
Ethnic cultural landscapes happen more in urban settings.
Sacred spaces are natural or human made sites that have religious meaning.
Many developing societies are becoming more secular(Less influenced or controlled by religion).
Linguistic landscapes send messages, both friendly and hostile.
A subculture is a group of people with distinct norms, values, and material practices that differentiate them from the dominant culture surrounding them.
There are also gender specific messages.
The landscape can also reveal invisible elements of culture like values, beliefs, attitudes.
Module 20
Sense of place is how a person feels about a particular place and why it is important to them.
Place making are how a person feels about a particular place and why it is important to them
Cultural landscape doesn’t merely reflect society.
A centripetal force is a force that brings people together and unifies a neighborhood, society, or country.
Religion, language, and ethnicity can be centripetal forces.
A centrifugal force is a force that threatens the cohesion of a neighborhood, society, or country.
Secularization is the process whereby religion becomes a less dominant force in everyday life than it was in the past.
Religion, language, and ethnicity can also be centrifugal forces.
Module 21
Absorbing barriers are barriers that completely halt diffusion.
Permeable barriers are barriers that slow diffusion but still allow some partial or weakened diffusion.
A pidgin is a trade language, characterized by a very small vocabulary derived from the languages of at least two or more groups in contact.
Creole language is a combined language that has a fuller vocabulary than a pidgin language and becomes a native language.
Lingua Franca is a language of communication and commerce spoken across a wide area where it is not a mother tongue.
Bilingualism is the ability to speak two languages fluently.
Empire is a sovereign political entity that seeks to expand beyond its origin territory to control more territory politically and/or economically.
Imperialism is the motivating impulse to control greater amounts of territory.
Colonialism is the act of forcefully controlling a foreign territory, which becomes known as a colony.
Genocide is the systematic killing of members of a racial, ethnic, or linguis tic group.
Writing is the best influential technology for diffusing language.
Colonialism affected the cultures of the colonized as the colonizers brought their languages, religions, technologies, and other cultural traits to each colony.
Module 22
Globalization is useful when looking at culture, race, and ethnicity.
Urbanization is one of the processes that shapes cultures.
Global mass communications can provide indigenous people with possibilities but can threaten economies and environments.
Communication can bring diverse peoples contact and make distinctive marker.
Time space convergence is the phenomenon whereby the introduction of new transportation technologies progressively reduces the time it takes to travel between places.
An example of time space convergence is English on the internet.
An endangered language is a language that is not taught to children by their parents and is not used actively in everyday matters.
Lingua francas gain more speakers because of online interaction and global business.
Extinct language is a language that has only a few elderly speakers still living or no living speakers.
Technology can help preserve endangered languages by creating language softwares and more.
Convergence hypothesis is the idea that cultures are converging or becoming more alike.
Glocalization is adapting global practices to fit local cultural practices and preferences. This can happen because of taboo.
Module 23
Culture hearth is a focused geographic area where important innovations are born and from which they spread.
Ethnic groups form from cultural hearth.
Language family is a group of related languages that share a common ancestry.
A dialect is a regional variation of a language that is understood by people who speak other variations of that language.
An accent is a way of pronouncing words.
Religions also spread like languages across the world.
Monotheistic faiths are related to the belief in only one god like Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
A universalizing religion is a religion that actively seeks new members and believes its message has universal importance and application.
An ethnic religion is a religion identified with a particular ethnic or tribal group that does not seek converts.
Proselytic is describing a religion that spreads its message to others through missionary work.
Indo European languages are the most widely spoken family. Mostly European countries and southern asia.
Sino Tibetan is another major language consisting of China and southeast Asia.
Afro Asiatic consists of two divisions: Semitic and Hamitic. Arabic is the most common semitic.
Toponyms are the names given to places.
Generic toponyms is the generic part of a place-name, often a suffix or prefix, such as -ville in Louisville.
A polytheistic religion is the belief in many gods.
Aninimistic religion is a faith that subscribes to the idea that souls or spirits exist not only in humans, but other entities in the natural environment.
Sacred spaces need to be preserved so they are put in a special location in the hearth.
Languages and religions get diffused through expansion and relocation diffusion.
Module 24
Acculturation occurs when an ethnic or immigrant group adopts enough of the ways of the host society to be able to function economically and socially.
Assimilation occurs when an ethnic or immigrant group blends in with the host culture and loses many culturally distinctive traits.
Transculturation is the notion that people adopt elements of other cultures as well as contribute elements of their own culture, thereby transforming both cultures.
Syncretism is the blending of beliefs, ideas, practices, and traits, especially in a religious context.
Syncretic religion is religion that combines elements of two or more different belief systems.
Orthodox religion is a religion that emphasizes purity of faith and is generally not open to blending with elements of other belief systems.
Module 25
Political geography is a branch of human geography concerned with the spatial analysis of political systems.
A political map is a map that shows the spatial organization of the countries and territories on the entire globe at a given point in time.
A state/country is an independent political unit with a centralized authority that makes claim to sole legal, political, and economic jurisdiction over a region with defined boundaries.
Every continent and region has shown on maps that it has undergone changes in power and territory.
An independent state is a state that rules itself and is not subject to the authority of another state.
A sovereign state is a state that possesses the sole authority over the land and people within its boundaries.
A nation is a community of people bound to a homeland and possessing a common identity based on shared cultural traits such as language, ethnicity, and religion.
A nation-state is The ideal political geographical unit; one in which the nation’s geographic boundaries exactly match the state’s territorial boundaries.
A nation-state ideal is the idea that political authorities govern in the name of all a country’s citizens, modern mass communications link all residents, and state-based citizenship rights reinforce the idea of a national identity.
Nationalism is a sense of belonging to and self-identifying with a national culture.
A stateless nation is an ethnic group or nation that does not possess its own state and is not the majority population in any nation-state.
A multinational state is a country containing multiple national, ethnic, and religious groups within its boundaries.
Multistate nations are ethnic groups territorially divided by one or more international boundaries.
An autonomous region is a subdivision or dependent territory of a country that has a degree of self-government, or autonomy, in its decision making.
A semi autonomous region is a subdivision or dependent territory of a country that has some degree of, but not complete, self-government.
Module 26
Self-determination refers to a nation’s ability to determine its own statehood and form its own allegiances and government.
A core area is a small territorial nucleus from which a country grows in area and over time.
Spread of political phenomena was often linked to the environment.
A country's protection could be escarpments which are abrupt slopes that break up the general continuity of the terrain.
Effective sovereignty is the idea that a state’s power to enforce its sovereignty may extend beyond its territory and varies over time and from country to country.
Colonialism is often the result of imperialism, usually the wealthy dominate poor countries.
In imperialism, the wealthy country exploits the poor country for its materials like gold and silver.
Devolution is the movement of power from the central government to regional governments within the state.
Ethnonationalism is a form of nationalism in which the nation is defined in terms of ethnic identity.
Module 27
Neocolonialism is the set of economic and political strategies by which wealthy and powerful countries indirectly maintain or extend their influence over less wealthy areas.
Peripheral states are states that have relatively little industrial development, simple production systems, and low levels of consumption of manufactured goods.
Core states are states that have the most advanced industrial and military technologies, complex manufacturing systems, external political power, and the highest levels of wealth and mass consumption.
Often, African countries’ dependence on their former colonial rulers leads them to accept foreign aid from core countries. But it takes the form of high interest loans.
Shatterbelts are regions of continuing and persistent fragmentation due to devolution and centrifugal forces.
Includes Southeast Asia, central Europe, the Middle east, and parts of africa.
A choke point is a narrow passage that restricts traffic to another region.
A strait is a narrow body of water connecting two larger bodies of water.
Territoriality is a political and cultural strategy used by individuals, groups, or organizations to claim power over an area of land and its people and resources.
A boundary is a clearly demarcated line that marks both the limits of a territory and divisions between territories.
The median line principle is an approach to dividing and creating boundaries at the midpoint between two places.
A borderland is A region straddling both sides of an international boundary where national cultures overlap and blend to varying degrees.
A region at the margins of state control and settlement.
An enclave is a territory surrounded by a country but not ruled by it.
An exclave is part of a national territory separated from the main body of the country to which it belongs.
Module 28
Boundaries that are delimited are describing how boundaries are fixed or defined to identify their limits.
Boundaries that are demarcated are describing how boundaries are set apart to distinguish their limits.
A relic boundary is a boundary that no longer functions as an international border.
A superimposed boundary is a boundary that is placed on an area without regard to existing boundaries.
A subsequent boundary is a political boundary that developed with the cultural landscape.
An antecedent boundary is a boundary that was identified before an area was settled.
Geometric boundary is a boundary that has regular, often perfectly straight, lines drawn without regard for an area’s physical or cultural features.
A consequent boundary is a boundary that is drawn to accommodate existing cultural differences.
A demilitarized zone is an area in which treaties or agreements between nations, military powers, or contending groups forbid military installations, activities, or personne.
A buffer state is a politically and economically weak independent country that lies between the borders of two powers.
A satellite state is a nominally independent country that is politically, militarily, and economically controlled by a more powerful state.
The United Nations Convention on the law of the sea is a conference organized to define territorial boundaries and rights to the sea.
Their most critical zone is the exclusive economic zone which is a zone that extends 200 nautical miles from shoreline in which coastal states have the sole right to exploit, develop, manage, and conserve all water resources lying beyond the land.
The arctic circle is an area defined by the 66 degrees, 34 minutes north latitude line.
Module 29
Electoral geography is a subfield of political geography that analyzes the geography of political preferences and how geography can shape voting outcomes.
A voting district is a territorial division for casting votes in public elections.
Based on residence in the district.
The electoral college is made up of a body of 538 electors in the United States; a majority of 270 electoral votes is required to elect the president.
Reapportionment is the process by which the 435 seats in the U.S. House of Representatives is divided proportionately by population among the 50 states following every U.S. census.
Redistricting is the process of drawing new boundaries for U.S. congressional districts to reflect the population changes since the previous U.S. census.
Gerrymandering is the manipulation of voting district boundaries to favor a particular political party, group, or election outcome.
There are 2 methods, packing and cracking.
Packing is gerrymandering a voting district by concentrating all of the opposition party into one district.
Cracking is gerrymandering a voting district by dividing opposition votes into many districts, thus diluting the opposition’s vote to ensure it does not form a majority in any district.
Module 30
Subnational units are the smaller areas into which a larger state is divided.
A unitary state is an independent state that concentrates power in the central government and grants little or no authority to its subnational units.
A federal state is an independent country that disperses significant authority among subnational units.
A unitary system of government sets strict laws that are observed in all regions.
A federal system of government is more geographically expressive acknowledging cultural differences.
Module 31
Irredentism is the political claim to territory in another country based on ethnic affiliations and historic borders.
Terrorism is the calculated use of violent acts against civilians and symbolic targets to publicize, intimidate the population, or affect the conduct of the government.
International terrorism is terrorism that transcends national boundaries and is intended to intimidate people in other countries.
Domestic terrorism is acts by individuals or groups against the citizens or government of their own country.
State terrorism is terrorism committed by government agents whose leaders have ordered them to murder, imprison, or force into exile perceived enemies of the state.]
Subnational terrorism is terrorism committed by nongovernment groups that feel wronged by their government.
The ETA is known as a basque separatist organization in Spain that used terrorism in its campaign for an independent Basque state.
Democratization occurs when a sovereign state moves from a non-democracy to a democracy.
Supranationalism occurs when a collection of nation-states and their citizens relinquish some sovereign rights to a larger-scale body that exercises authority over its member states.
Supranational organization is an international political body that nation-states establish in cooperation with their neighbors for mutual political, military, economic, or cultural gain.
The UN is an international organization that is responsible for maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations.
The EU is a political, economic, and social union of 28 independent European countries that promotes the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital among its members.
The AU is a continental organization of African states that seeks to drive Africa’s growth and economic development through cooperation and integration of member states.
The arctic council is an international governmental forum that promotes interaction among the Arctic states and indigenous communities on common Arctic issues.
The regional trading bloc is a multi-country agreement that reduces or eliminates taxes to promote the free flow of goods and services across international borders.
They try to achieve economies of scale which are cost advantages that can come with a larger scale of operations.
NAFTA is a 1994 trade agreement between Canada, the United States, and Mexico; revised as the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) in 2020.
ASEAN is a regional intergovernmental organization comprising 10 countries in Southeast Asia to promote intergovernmental cooperation and facilitate economic growth and cultural development.
NATO is an intergovernmental military alliance among 29 North American and European countries with the purpose of guaranteeing the freedom and security of its members.
Module 32
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A failed state is a state whose political or economic system has become so weak that the government is no longer in control.
Uneven development Occurs when core states have advanced economies and a high standard of living while peripheral states have relatively little industrial development, simple production systems based mostly on raw materials and low consumption.
Allegiance is loyalty or commitment to a country.
Infrastructure refers to the high cost investments such as airports, highways, and power plants.
Communication can be a factor in devolution.
Equitable infrastructure is the construction and improvement of foundational services such as access to energy resources throughout the country.
Cultural cohesion is cultural unity; occurs when the members of a society are culturally united.
Iconography is a set of traditional symbols or symbolic forms associated with a country and its citizens.