5.10

Continuity and Change in the Industrial Age

  • Capital as Social Power

    • Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx noted in The Communist Manifesto (1848) that capital is not personal but a form of social power.

  • Essential Question

    • How did the Industrial Revolution demonstrate both continuity and change?

  • Overview of the Industrial Revolution

    • Began in the late 18th century, it caused significant economic, social, cultural, political, and environmental changes.

    • These changes were unprecedented since the first Agricultural Revolution over 10,000 years ago.

    • Altered production methods, employment structures, and societal compositions.

    • Promoted the expansion of the middle class and established a new working class reliant on factory jobs.

    • Transformed the role of women as they became a significant part of the workforce.

  • Political Influence of the Enlightenment

    • The Enlightenment was a lasting intellectual movement influencing the Industrial Revolution.

    • Economic and political philosophers, such as Adam Smith and Karl Marx, were motivated by the changes of this period.

    • Industrialization had local and global impacts; existing rivalries among nations persisted, leading to conflicts.

    • Rigid social orders based on economic and ethnic status remained prominent in industrial economies.

Economic Continuities and Changes

  • Transformations in Production and Consumption

    • The Industrial Revolution reshaped how goods were manufactured and consumed.

    • Key factors in Western Europe:

    • Abundant natural resources.

    • Access to trans-oceanic trade routes.

    • Available financial capital.

    • Increasing population.

    • The culmination of these factors positioned Western Europe as a leader in industrialization.

    • The Scientific Revolution, which preceded this era, provided essential scientific knowledge that facilitated innovation.

  • Transition from Skilled Artisans to Factory Production

    • The rise of machinery resulted in skilled artisans transitioning to a factory system characterized by:

    • Automation of production.

    • Assembly line work requiring unskilled labor.

    • Production shifted towards identical goods instead of unique, handcrafted items.

    • Consumers enjoyed greater availability, affordability, and variety of products than ever before.

  • Global Industrialization

    • New industrial production methods spread beyond Western Europe to countries like the U.S., Russia, and Japan.

    • State-sponsored efforts in Japan and Egypt aimed to modernize economies with varying outcomes.

    • Western Europe and the U.S. dominated global economies while manufacturing outputs from the Middle East and Asia declined.

Share of Total World Manufacturing Output (Percentage)

  • Data by Year:

    • 1750:

      • Europe: 23.2

      • United States: 0.1

      • Japan: 3.8

      • Rest of the World: 73.0

    • 1800:

      • Europe: 28.1

      • United States: 0.8

      • Japan: 3.5

      • Rest of the World: 67.7

    • 1860:

      • Europe: 53.2

      • United States: 7.2

      • Japan: 2.6

      • Rest of the World: 36.6

    • 1880:

      • Europe: 61.3

      • United States: 14.7

      • Japan: 2.4

      • Rest of the World: 20.9

    • 1900:

      • Europe: 62.0

      • United States: 23.6

      • Japan: 2.4

      • Rest of the World: 11.0

    • Sources of Raw Materials

  • Certain regions maintained traditional production, providing minerals, crops, and resources:

    • Latin America and Africa: Key sources for minerals and metals.

    • Cotton: Exported from Egypt, South Asia, and the Caribbean to Europe.

    • Southeast Asia: Continues to supply spices, rubber, tin, and timber.

  • Technological innovations like steamboats and locomotives enhanced trade efficiency.

  • Inventions such as the telegraph improved communication and facilitated global trade growth.

    • Shifts in Economic Systems

  • Transition from mercantilism (regulated trade for national wealth) to capitalism (free pursuit of profits).

  • Adam Smith suggested that private profit motives would benefit society as a whole.

Social Continuities and Changes

  • Changes in Population and Labor

    • The predominately rural European population shifted to urban centers for factory work due to increased industrialization.

    • Industrial working class faced low wages, long hours, poor working conditions, and overcrowded living environments.

  • Working Conditions

    • Daily life revolved around factory jobs, significantly differing from the agricultural schedules of pre-industrial times.

    • Labor strikes and formation of worker associations aimed at improving wages and working conditions emerged in response to hardships.

  • Shifts in the Middle Class Composition

    • Industrialization diversified the middle class beyond traditional roles (doctors, lawyers) by adding factory management, financial institutions, and trading operations.

Growth of the Non-Agricultural Labor Force in Europe

  • Data by Country:

    • ** England**:

      • 1800: 68%

      • 1850: 78%

      • 1900: 84%

    • France:

      • 1800: 41%

      • 1850: 57%

      • 1900: 69%

    • Italy:

      • 1800: 42%

      • 1850: 56%

      • 1900: 67%

    • Poland:

      • 1800: 44%

      • 1850: 53%

      • 1900: 58%

  • Transformation of Wealth and Social Hierarchies

    • Transformation from aristocratic wealth to capitalist wealth, with industrial owners gaining social prestige.

  • Gender Roles During Industrialization

    • Women's roles shifted significantly with the move to industrial economies:

    • Previously dependent on male family income, women now contributed significantly due to factory demands for labor.

    • Despite this critical role in family finances, women faced wage disparities and limited job opportunities compared to men.

Political Continuities and Changes

  • Political Elizabethan Influence

    • Enlightenment philosophies prompted political discussions surrounding individual rights and government responsibility during the Industrial Revolution.

    • Public sentiment favored natural rights, demanding the ability to petition and protest against government actions.

  • Political Movements and Protests

    • Many uprisings sparked by nationalism connected to middle and working-class interests:

    • 1848 Revolutions highlighted demands for democratic representation and rights.

      • Examples of 1848 events:

      • Paris protesters demanded press freedoms.

      • Berlin citizens sought governmental checks on monarchical power.

      • Hungarian populations called for independence from Austria.

  • Voting Rights Evolution

    • Expansion of political rights occurred in parallel with rising middle-class influence, though primarily focused on men:

    • Legislative actions and revolutionary movements forced reforms in voting rights.

    • Women did not gain voting rights in Western industrial nations until the early 20th century.

  • Emergence of Labor Political Parties

    • Political parties began to represent working-class interests, advocating for reforms like:

    • Minimum wages.

    • Shorter workdays.

    • Paid sick and holiday leave.

    • Improved working conditions.

    • Health and unemployment insurance.

  • Widespread Social Reforms

    • Initiatives like Otto Von Bismarck's reforms in Germany showcased early worker protections, which spread across various nations:

    • Workers' compensation, unemployment insurance, and old-age pensions were significant reforms.

    • Bismarck's approach was motivated by a desire to quell social unrest among the working class and retain political stability.