Nurse Cheung Science-Bootcamp Notes Review

Overview of Scientific Reasoning

  • Comprehensive notes based on Nurse Cheung Science-Bootcamp content.

Scientific Reasoning

  • SMART Goals: Key framework for scientific reasoning.

    • S: Specific

    • M: Measurable

    • A: Achievable

    • R: Relevant

    • T: Time-bound

Chemistry

  • Exothermic Reaction: A type of reaction that releases energy into the environment.

    • Meaning of Exo-: Prefix indicates exit or release of energy.

    • Examples:

    • Burning wood, which produces heat and light.

    • Dissolving sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in water, resulting in a temperature rise, indicating an exothermic process.

  • Bases: Substances typically characterized by the presence of a hydroxide (−OH) or oxide group.

    • Example: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is a classic example of a base.

  • Chemical Bonds: Types of connections between atoms in molecules.

    • Covalent Bonds: Bonds where electrons are shared between atoms.

    • Ionic Bonds: Bonds formed through the loss, gain, or donation of electrons.

  • Atomic Structure: Describes the composition of atoms.

    • Atomic Number: Defined as the number of protons in an element.

    • Acronym: PAN - Protons = Atomic Number = Number of protons.

    • Atomic Mass (Mass Number): Represents the sum of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus.

    • Acronym: MAN - Mass Adds Neutrons (to protons).

    • Neutrons Calculation: Found by subtracting the atomic number from the mass number (protons).

    • extNeutrons=extMassNumber−extAtomicNumberext{Neutrons} = ext{Mass Number} - ext{Atomic Number}

  • Noble Gases: Elements that are largely unreactive due to full outer electron shells (valence shells) containing typically 8 electrons, providing stability.

  • Nitrogen Gas (N₂): Involves the formation of covalent bonds produced by sharing three pairs of electrons, known as a triple bond.

  • Calculating Number of Atoms in Molecules/Compounds: The total sum of all individual atoms in a molecule.

    • Examples:

    • H₂ - contains 2 atoms;

    • NaCl - contains 2 atoms (1 Na and 1 Cl);

    • H₂O - contains 3 atoms (2 H and 1 O).

  • Catalyst: A substance that lowers the activation energy needed for a reaction, thereby accelerating the reaction without being consumed in the process.

  • Redox Reactions: Reactions involving oxidation and reduction.

    • Oxidation Reaction: Described as the removal of electrons from an atom or molecule.

    • Acronym: OIL - Oxidation Is Loss of electrons.

    • Reduction Reaction: Characterized by the gain of electrons by an atom or molecule.

    • Acronym: RIG - Reduction Is Gain of electrons.

  • pH Scale: A measure of acidity or basicity of solutions.

    • More acidic substances exhibit lower pH values.

    • More basic substances demonstrate higher pH values.

Biology

  • tRNA (Transfer RNA): A crucial molecule in protein synthesis (translation) that carries specific amino acids to ribosomes.

    • Function: tRNA stands for Transport.

  • Cellular Osmotic Balance: Maintained through the regulation of ion balance, particularly sodium (Na) and potassium (K).

    • Interactions: Excessive potassium can displace sodium and vice versa, affecting cellular functions.

  • Mitochondria: The cellular organelles that are the primary site of ATP production through cellular respiration processes.

  • Cell Division: Different mechanisms for dividing cells.

    • Meiosis:

    • Results in 4 daughter cells.

    • Each daughter cell contains half the number of chromosomes compared to the parent cell (haploid, denoted as n).

    • Involves diploid cells (2n) such as spermatocytes in males and oocytes in females critical for gamete formation.

    • Mitosis:

    • Produces 2 identical daughter cells.

    • Occurs in somatic or body cells.

  • Genotypes: Genetic composition of an organism.

    • Homozygous: A condition where both alleles for a trait are identical.

    • Examples:

      • Homozygous Dominant: e.g., FF

      • Homozygous Recessive: e.g., ff

    • Heterozygous: Involves differing alleles for a specific trait.

    • Example: Ff.

  • Viruses: A type of pathogen that lacks metabolic pathways and can only replicate within the cells of a host.

  • Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment: This genetic principle posits that genes for separate traits are inherited independently of one another during gamete formation.

  • Genes & Ribosomes: The relationship between genes and cellular machinery.

    • Genes define the specific sequences in DNA.

    • Ribosomes facilitate the translation of mRNA into functional proteins.

  • Cytoskeleton: Comprised of protein filaments that provide structure to cells and assist in their movement.

  • Macromolecules: Large complex molecules essential for biological functions.

    • Carbohydrates (Carbs): Primarily serve as energy storage molecules in biological systems.

    • Nucleic Acids: Include both DNA and RNA, tasked with carrying genetic information.

    • Lipids: Essential for forming cell membranes and functioning in energy storage.

  • Nuclei (Cellular): Serve as the repository for genetic information within an organism.

Anatomy & Physiology

  • Respiratory System: Key components of the respiratory tract and their functions.

    • Trachea: Known as the "windpipe"; is responsible for conducting air to and from the lungs.

    • Bronchi: Major airways that bifurcate from the trachea and lead into the lungs.

    • Bronchioles: Smaller air passages that branch from bronchi, culminating into alveolar ducts.

    • Diaphragm:

    • Contracting: Flattens which causes lungs to expand, leading to the inhalation of air.

    • Relaxing: Curves upwards, resulting in lung constriction and facilitating exhalation.

    • Medulla Oblongata: The central control unit for breathing regulation.

  • Digestive Enzymes: Important enzymes and their roles in digestion.

    • Pepsin: Enzyme secreted in the stomach, activated by hydrochloric acid (HCl), that digests proteins.

    • Amylase: Enzyme present in salivary and pancreatic secretions; crucial for carbohydrate digestion.

    • Lipase: Secreted in both the stomach and pancreas, facilitating lipid (fat) breakdown.

    • Maltase: Enzyme that converts maltose into glucose.

  • Intestines: Two parts of the digestive system and their functions.

    • Small Intestine: This region is primarily responsible for the digestion of food and absorption of nutrients.

    • Large Intestine: Main functions include the absorption of water, maintenance of electrolyte balance, and compaction of waste.

  • Kidney:

    • Proximal Convoluted Tubule: The segment responsible for reabsorbing crucial substances such as glucose and amino acids back into circulation.

  • Circulatory System: Key components and their functions.

    • Arteries: Vessels that transport oxygen-rich blood away from the heart.

    • Veins: Vessels that return oxygen-poor blood back to the heart.

    • Left Ventricle: The chamber with the most substantial myocardium (muscle wall) due to its role in pumping blood throughout systemic circulation.

  • Hormones: Several key hormones and their physiological roles.

    • Erythropoietin: A hormone that promotes the production of red blood cells, resulting in increased hemoglobin levels in the blood.

    • Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Crucial for the development of ova (eggs) in females and sperm in males.

    • Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Triggers ovulation in females and stimulates the production of androgens in males.

    • Estrogen: The primary female sex hormone that plays a significant role in reproductive functions.

    • Progesterone: Essential for preparing the uterine lining in the menstrual cycle and maintaining pregnancy.