Soc 142 Exam 2 Study Guide

Key Definitions in Gender Studies

• Sex: A biological category based on anatomy and physiology (e.g., male or female).

• Gender: The social realization of biological sex, often split into two parts:

  • Gender Identity: One's internal identification with a gender category, formed through social interactions.

  • Gender Expression: Outward behaviors and presentations that align with gender norms, which can vary across cultures and time.

• Nonbinary Gender Identity: An identity that is neither exclusively male nor female.

• Androgynous: An individual who exhibits traits of both masculinity and femininity.

• Intersex: A condition where a person’s chromosomal composition does not align with their sexual anatomy at birth, or where their anatomy is not clearly male or female (e.g., approximately 12 in 100,000 births).

• Transgender: A term for individuals whose gender identity does not match their sex assigned at birth.

  • Gender Dysphoria: Distress experienced from a mismatch between one's sex and gender identity.

Perspectives on Gender Differences and Inequalities

• Biosocial Perspective:

  • Gender identification and differences arise from both biological predispositions and societal influences.

  • Androgens during gestation can affect later behavior.

  • Caveats:

    • Biologically-based behavioral differences exist on average.

    • Social influences can counteract biological predispositions.

• Socialization Perspective:

  • Individuals internalize elements of the social structure through learnings (norms, rules, culture).

  • Theories:

    • Social Learning Theory (Bandura): People repeat behaviors they are rewarded for and avoid those they are punished for.

      • Enactive learning (experiencing rewards or punishments oneself) promotes behavior repetition.

      • Observational learning (watching others and their consequences) informs behavioral choices.

• Doing Gender:

  • Gender differences are created and reinforced through daily social interactions.

  • West and Zimmerman popularized the idea that gender is continuously performed based on social pressures.

Agents of Gender Socialization

• Family:

  • Parents decorate children's spaces and choose clothing that aligns with gender norms (pink for girls, blue for boys).

  • Toy preferences reflect societal roles — girls gravitate towards nurturant toys, while boys prefer action-oriented toys.

  • Chores and interactions with children vary by gender — boys spend less time on housework compared to girls.

  • Parents may instill strict gender roles regardless of children's actual gender identity.

• Siblings:

  • Influence is profound, especially when siblings can adopt each other's behaviors.

• Media:

  • Portrayals in media often focus on women's appearances, impacting self-image and societal expectations.

  • The Bechdel Test assesses female representation in films: only 43% of top 1,000 films pass this test.

• School:

  • Schools serve as settings for formal and informal gender learning through interactions and teacher expectations around gendered behavior.

• Peers:

  • Peer interactions significantly shape children's understanding and performance of gender.

Theories Explaining Gender Inequality

• Marxist Feminism and Socialist Feminism:

  • Capitalist structures maintain gender inequality due to economic benefits of low-wage labor (children raised in a patriarchal culture contribute to this).

  • Women's unpaid work at home increases economic burdens and maintains male-dominated labor structures.

  • Critiques: Some societies exhibit gender inequalities that aren't strictly capitalistic; cultural factors also play a role.

• Recent Research:

  • Clark and Kroska (2024) found increases in women's political representation correlating with shifts in gender attitudes across an analysis of 101 countries between 1995 and 2021.

Wage Gap Dynamics

• Male-Dominated Occupations: Often pay more compared to female-dominated fields, leading to wage disparities.

• Motherhood Wage Penalty: Mothers generally earn less than non-mothers, while fathers sometimes see a wage increase termed the "fatherhood wage premium".

Cultural Shifts in Sexuality

• Historical Changes in Attitudes Since the Colonial Era to 1960s:

  • Colonial period emphasized procreation within marriage; no concepts of sexual orientation.

  • By the 1960s, romantic love started emerging as a significant facet of marriage.

• Post-1960s Trends:

  • Sexual mores expanded beyond marriage; dating dynamics shifted, and attitudes towards non-marital sex became more permissive.

Marriage Types and Their Evolution

• Institutional to Individualized Marriage:

  • The evolution from institutional marriages based on authority to individualization focusing on self-development and flexible roles reflects broader societal changes.

Same-Sex Marriage Political Developments

• Timeline of Legal Milestones:

  • 1993-2015: Significant rulings and legislation culminating in the legalization of same-sex marriage by the US Supreme Court in Obergefell v. Hodges (2015).

Chosen Families Concept by Kath Weston

• Meaning of Chosen Families: Families formed through voluntary ties, showcasing how non-biological relationships can support social and emotional needs, particularly within LGBTQ communities.