Archaeology and the Public: Class Notes

The Meaning of the Past: The Archaeology of Identity

• The past can impact identity in the present.
• Archaeology plays a role in shaping national identity, especially for nations without a long written history.
• National symbols and ethnicity are connected to archaeology.
• Example: Tiwanaku as a national symbol for Indigenous people of Bolivia, with ancient groups claiming descent from it.
• Major monuments can express sectarian sentiments.
• Monuments may be replaced or repurposed.
• Religious extremism can lead to acts of destruction.
• Examples:
  • Bamiyan Buddhas destroyed by the Taliban.
  • Destruction of monuments and art by IS forces in Iraq and Syria.

Archaeological Ethics

• Ethics is the science of morals.
• Archaeology relates to identity, which can create ethical problems.
• Conflicting principles exist:
  • Biological anthropology versus respect for human remains.
  • Respect for human remains (reburial) versus destruction of archaeological material.
• Respect for human remains may be enshrined in law, e.g., NAGPRA.
• Rights to property can cause conflict between developers and conservationists.
• Acquisition of illicit antiquities is an ethical issue.
• Archaeological ethics is a growing subject.

Popular Archaeology vs. Pseudoarchaeology

• It's important for archaeologists to communicate with the wider public, but this can be compromised by pseudoarchaeology.
• Pseudoarchaeology:
  • Primary motive might be to make money.
  • Alternative interpretations of the past.
  • Beliefs that clash with scientific interpretations (e.g., Stonehenge).
  • Examples include Ignatius Donnelly and Erich von Däniken.
• Fraud in archaeology is not uncommon.
• Example: Fujimura case and potential impact on evidence.
• Increasing importance of spectacular discoveries.
• Reaching wider audiences requires skillful popularization.
• Encouraging public interest can lead to financial and other kinds of support for archaeological work.

Who Owns the Past?

• It's important to consider different viewpoints of the past when dealing with cultural property.

Museums and the Return of Cultural Property

• Pressure on museums to return cultural property acquired during the colonial period.
• Examples:
  • Parthenon Marbles at the British Museum.
  • Queen Nefertiti bust in Germany.
  • Benin bronzes.
• Artifacts acquired in different ways, including illegally, through violence, or purchase from occupied nations.
• Efforts by some museums to self-reflect and work with nations and descendant communities on programs of repatriation.
• In 2021, Jesus College, Cambridge University was the first European institution to return a Benin bronze.
• Digital Benin project.

Excavating Burials: Should We Disturb the Dead?

• Complex ethics for historical periods where we have knowledge of religious beliefs and where societies feared disturbance of the dead.
• Tomb robbing has existed for a long time, and in antiquity funerary items were sometimes reused, e.g., Ostia.
• Native American heritage:
  • Archaeology a focal point for grievance about past wrongs.
  • Refusal in some cases to allow new excavations or study of human remains.
  • Archaeologists increasingly engaging with Native American communities in decision-making, e.g., the Jemez in New Mexico.
  • No single Native American tradition; compromise often required.
  • Repatriation. SAA and NAGPRA; challenges of interpreting terms such as cultural affiliation.
  • Example of Kennewick Man.
• Indigenous Australian heritage:
  • Attention focused on wrongdoings of the colonial period.
  • The return of human remains.
  • Example of Kow Swamp return and reburial.

The Responsibility of Collectors and Museums

• Public museums and private collectors as causative agents of destruction.
• Illicit antiquities.
• Incentivization of looting; the purchase of illegally sourced items indirectly funds looting.
• Looting destroys context, e.g., Mimbres sites.
• Some steps taken by museums in terms of their acquisition policies:
  • Refuse to acquire artifacts if legal export from country of origin cannot be proved, e.g., Penn Museum.
  • Greater due diligence.
• Legislation:
  • UK 2003 (The Dealing in Cultural Objects [Offences] Act).
  • Criminal charges in the US.