Body Systems (Musculoskeletal)
Bony Skeleton
provides a framework or shape for the body
supports the weight of the body
protects and supports the soft body organs
stores minerals such as calcium and phosphorus
produces blood cells in the bone marrow.
Muscles
together with the skeleton provide movement of the body
stabilise the joints
provide body posture
produce heat and help to maintain the body's temperature.
Root word | Meaning (origin) |
|---|---|
Arthr(o) | Joint (Greek) |
Cranio | Skull (Greek) |
Muscul(o) | Muscle (Latin) |
My(o) | Muscle (Greek) |
Oste(o) | Bone (Greek) |
Spondyl(o) | Vertebra (Greek) |
Ten(o) | Tendon (Greek) |
Medical terminology | Meaning |
|---|---|
Atrophy | Decrease in size, shrink |
Bone marrow | A spongy substance found in the centre of bones which produces blood cells. |
Contraction | The tightening or shortening of the muscles when an activity is done. |
Extension | This refers to body movement where the angle between two body parts is increased |
Flexion | This refers to body movement where the angle between two body parts is decreased |
Fracture | To break (a bone) |
Osteoarthritis | A condition where there is degeneration of the cartilage within a joint, causing pain. |
Osteoporosis | A condition where there is depletion of calcium in the bone which decreases the bone mass and leads to brittle bones which break easily. |
The musculoskeletal system consists of:
Bones
Cartilage
Tendons
Ligaments
Muscles
Joints
Muscle | Position | Action | Key notes |
|---|---|---|---|
Sternocleidomastoid: Originates at the sternum and medial clavicle - inserts into mastoid process of temporal bone. | Located at the side of the neck from the thorax to the base of the skull. | Flexes cervical spine and draws head forwards plus rotates head. | A very important muscle assists in turning the head from side to side. |
Occipitalis: Attaches to the occipital bone and skin of the scalp. | Back of head. | Moves the scalp backwards. | The occipitalis is united to the frontalis muscle by a broad tendon that covers the skull like a cap. |
Pectoralis major/minor: Arises from anterior surface of clavicle, inserts into bicipital groove of humerus. | Chest (underneath the breast in a female).Pectoralis minor lies under Pectoralis major. | Flexes, adducts and rotates medially the humerus and keeps arms attached to trunk of body. | Broad, thick and fan-shaped muscle. |
Erector spinae: Attaches to the sacrum and the iliac crest of pelvis at one end, then to the ribs and the transverse and spinous processes of the vertebrae, and finally to the occipital bone at the other end. | Three bands of muscle that lie in the groove between the vertebral column and the ribs. | Extension, lateral (side) flexion and rotation of the vertebral column. | A very important postural muscle as it helps to extend the spine. |
Trapezius: Extends horizontally from the base of the skull and the cervical and thoracic vertebrae to the scapula. | Large triangular-shaped muscle in the upper back. Fibres are arranged in three groups: Upper, middle and lower. | Upper fibres raise the shoulders, middle fibres pull the scapula towards the spine and lower fibres draw the shoulders downwards. | Covers shoulder and upper part of the back of the neck that commonly holds a lot of upper body tension, causing discomfort and restrictions in the neck and the shoulders. |
Levator scapula: From the scapula to the cervical vertebrae of the neck. | Long strap-like muscle that runs almost vertically through the neck. | Elevates and adducts the scapula (draws the scapula towards the spine). | Tends to become very tight, which affects the mobility of the neck and the shoulder. |
Rhomboids: To the upper thoracic vertebrae at one end and the medial border of the scapula at the other end. | Between the scapula. | Adduct the scapula (draw the scapula towards the spine). | Often very tight, resulting in aching and soreness in between the scapula. |
Supraspinatus: Attaches to the spine of the scapula at one end and the humerus at the other end. | In the depression above the spine (top ridge) of the scapula. | Abducts the humerus (draws the arm away from the body). | Often becomes fatigued when working for prolonged periods at a desk or computer, or when driving. |
Infraspinatus: Attaches to the middle two-thirds of the scapula at one end and the top of the humerus at the other. | Below the spine of the scapula. | Rotates the humerus laterally (outwards). | Tension here can affect the range of mobility in the shoulder. |
Teres major: Attaches to the bottom lateral edge of the scapula at one end and the back of the humerus at the other end. | Across the bottom lateral (outer) edge of the scapula. | Adducts and medially (inwardly) rotates humerus. | Tension here can resist the mobility of the shoulder and upper arm. |
Teres minor: Attaches to the lateral edge of the scapula, above teres major at one end and into the top of the posterior of the humerus at the other end. | Across the lateral edge of the scapula, above teres major. | Rotates humerus laterally (outwards). | Tension here can restrict the mobility of the shoulder and upper arm. |
Deltoid: Attaches to the clavicle and the spine of the scapula at one end and to the side of the humerus at the other. | Caps the top of the humerus and the shoulder. | Abducts the arm (draws the arm away from the body), draws the arm backwards and forwards. | Tends to hold upper body tension and will often go into spasm, along with the trapezius muscle. |
Biceps: Attaches to the scapula at one end and the radius and flexor muscles of the forearm at the other end. | Anterior (front) of the upper arm. | Flexes the forearm. | Becomes tight when the body assumes a tension posture (hunched shoulders and arms, elbows hugged tight against the body). |
Triceps: Attaches to the posterior of humerus and the outer edge of the scapula at one end, to ulna below the elbow at the other end. | Posterior (back) of the humerus. | Extension (ie. straightens) the forearm. | Becomes tight when the body assumes a tension posture (hunched shoulders and elbows hugged tight against the body). |
Rectus abdominis: Bases of 5-7th ribs and the inferior sternum. | Pubic crest and symphysis pubis. | Compression of abdomen. Flexes spine. | Broad and flat, most superficial muscle of the abdominal wall. |
Transversus abdominis:Inferior sternum, linea alba and pubis. | Iliac crest and bases of lower six ribs. | Compresses abdomen. | Deepest muscle of abdominal wall. |
Internal and external obliques: Bases of lower three ribs and iliac crest and the linea alba. | Iliac crest and lower eight ribs | Compression of abdomen and laterally bends spine. | Rotates trunk. |
Latissimus dorsi: Lateral anterior aspect of head of humerus. | Spines of vertebrae from 6th thoracic down to sacral crest. | Extends and adducts arm and medially rotates arm. | Large triangular shaped muscle. |
Gluteus maximus: Outer aspect of femur. | Posterior pelvis, sacrum and coccyx. | Adducts hip, outward rotation of thigh and extension of knee. | Large muscle which helps maintain erect position by extending hip joint. |
Hamstrings (semitendinosus, biceps femoris, semimembranosus): Tibia and fibula at either side of popliteal. | Ischial tuberosity, back of femur. | Extension of hip, flexion of knee and lateral rotation of femur. | Group of three muscles - chief action to flex knee joint. |
Quadriceps (rectus femoris, vastus medialis and vastus lateralis): Superior border of patella, tibial tuberosity via patellar ligament and tibial tuberosity via patellar. | Anterior inferior iliac spine, distal 1/3 of posterior shaft of femur and superior lateral aspect ligament. | Flexes hip joint, extends leg and knee. | Group of four muscles that act as very strong extensors of knee joint. |
Gastrocnemius: Through Achilles tendon on heel. | Lateral and medial condyle of femur. | Flexion of knee, plantar flexion of ankle. | Having two heads it forms bulk of calf and used extensively in walking, running and jumping. |
Soleus: Through Achilles tendon to heel. | Head of fibula. | Plantar flexion. | One of the main calf muscles. |
The human bony skeleton is made up of 206 bones.
Bones are classified based on their shape - long bones, such as the humerus and femur; short bones, such as the bones of the wrist; flat bones, such as the bones in the skull; and irregular bones, such as the vertebrae.
Most of us know that calcium is important for healthy bones but vitamins A, C and D along with minerals phosphate, iron and manganese are also needed.
Cartilage — a strong connective tissue that provides protection to the ends of the bones in a joint. It stops the bones rubbing together and reduces friction. Another function of cartilage is that of a shock absorber, where it reduces the impact of movement on the bone.
Tendons — These are made of fibrous connective tissue and connect muscles to bone. Tendons allow for the movement of the limbs of the body and also absorb some of the impact of muscle movement. Tendons not only anchor muscles, but also cross rough bony projections that would otherwise tear the more fragile muscle tissue and because they are relatively small in size, more tendons can pass over a joint.
Ligaments — also composed of fibrous connective tissue and attaches bone to bone. They strengthen the joint and assist in stabilising the bone and muscle.
An area where two or more bones are in contact with each other - almost every bone in the body joins or articulates with another bone.
They allowmovement and are held together by ligaments. Joints can be classified into three main categories; immovable joints, slightly movable joints and freely movable joints.
Immovable joints do not allow for any movement and the sutures of the skull represent this type of joint.
Slightly movable joints allow for extremely limited movement and the example of this is movement of the spinal column at the intervertebral discs.
Freely movable joints have much greater flexibility and represent most of the joints of the skeleton.
Hinge Joint — the elbow, that moves on just one asxis and allows for flexion and extension.
Ball and Socket Joint — the shoulder. a frelly moving joint that can rotate any axis.
Condyloid joint — the wrist, that allows for a circular motion as well as flexion and extension.
Gliding Joint — Vertebrae, that move against each other in a gliding motion as the body moves.
Pivot joint — At the top of the spine the atlas and axis, that allows for rotation of the head.
Saddle joint — The joint where the thumb joins the hand, which lets the thumb cross over the palm making it opposable.
Skull Joints —
Sutures are non-moving joints that connect bones of the skull. These joints have serrated edges that lock together with fibres of connective tissue. The interlocking edges make sutures strong and fracture resistant.
All skull joints are sutures except for the joint connecting the mandible to the temporal bone which is a movable synovial joint
Muscle tissue is one of the four primary types of tissue found within the body and it is comprised mostly of muscle cells that are highly specialised for contraction. Without these muscle tissues, no body movement could occur.
There are over 600 muscles in the human body and they are composed of many bundles of stringy fibres bound together.
Skeletal muscles are generally attached to bone. Their function is to produce movement and maintain body posture. They also produce considerable heat and therefore help maintain body temperature. These muscles are also known as voluntary muscles, as we have conscious control over the use of these muscles - we choose to walk etc.
Smooth muscles control the actions of our bladder, stomach and blood vessels. The smooth muscles are involuntary muscles under the control of the autonomic nervous system. They can move instinctively during body functioning. You may also know them as the visceral muscles. They are located in the walls of internal organs such as the digestive tract, blood vessels and ducts leading from glands. Their function is to move and control the flow of fluids through these structures.
Cardiac muscle is located in the heart. The cardiac muscle is classified as involuntary. We do not have to 'think' about the heart beating. It is the contraction and relaxation of this muscle that causes the heart to beat.
Muscles contract (shorten) and relax in response to chemicals and the stimulation of a motor nerve. Muscles can only pull, they never push and they often work in pairs or teams to bring about a variety of body movements. Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by nerve impulses to contract. Muscles make common types of movements, such as flexion, extension, rotation and a number of other movements
If there has been a break/fracture in bone then there is usually pain and deformity of the bone and swelling of the soft tissues around the bone.
Sometimes pain can occur in bones or joints without any obvious injury and this would need to be investigated to find the reason for the pain.
Swollen knuckles and joints.
Abnormal curvature of the vertebral column.
Decrease in the height of the person.
Bone becomes thin and prone to fractures (this may be identified on an X-ray).
Sprain or strain of a muscle.
Atrophy — (of body tissue or an organ) waste away, especially as a result of the degeneration of cells, or become vestigial during evolution.
Other evidence includes if a muscle is overused it will increase in size or if a muscle is not used for a period of time it will atrophy (shrink) – this happens when there has been a broken bone which has been casted and there has been little movement of the muscle within the cast.
Contracture of a muscle may occur when it has been immobilised for a prolonged period. This can cause the muscle to 'fix' in a flexed position resulting in restricted joint mobility.
Changes related to ageing or disability | Impact on the person's well-being |
|---|---|
Muscle atrophy or wasting | The older person will become weaker and shaky – have trouble opening containers or moving things |
The amount of bone mineral decreases and the bone becomes thinner | The bones can break more easily |
Joints may become stiff and more inflexible | This may lead to issues with fine motor skills and it is harder for them to write neatly |
There are changes in the muscle mass and the bony structure | |
— (Croft & Croft, 2017). | Gait and posture are altered and there will be an increased risk of falls |
People with cerebral palsy have a greater prevalence of musculoskeletal pain than the general population | |
— (Jahnsen et al in Patel, Chu & Gerstman, 2014). | Living with pain and sometimes not being able to communicate the level of their pain and discomfort |
Those people living with spinal cord injuries have a higher risk for any and all musculoskeletal problems than people without spinal cord injury | |
— (Rodriguez et al, 2021). | Pain limits any movement that they have and there is a higher risk of obesity and cardiovascular disease because of the limited movement |
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a painful, degenerative joint disease that often involves the hips, knees, neck, lower back, or small joints of the hands.
OA usually develops in joints that are injured by repeated overuse from performing a particular task or playing a favourite sport or from carrying around excess body weight.
Eventually this injury or repeated impact thins or wears away the cartilage that cushions the ends of the bones in the joint. As a result, the bones rub together, causing a grating sensation.
Joint flexibility is reduced, bony spurs develop and the joint swells. Usually, the first symptom of OA is pain that worsens following exercise or immobility.
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune inflammatory disease that usually involves various joints in the fingers, thumbs, wrists, elbows, shoulders, knees, feet and ankles.
An autoimmune disease is one in which the body releases enzymes that attack its own healthy tissues.
In RA, these enzymes destroy the linings of joints. This causes pain, swelling, stiffness, malformation and reduced movement and function.
Bone cancer may be due to a primary cancer that begins in the bone or spreads to the bone as secondary cancer from another part of the body such as cancer in the lungs, breast or prostate.
There are several types of primary bone cancers such as leukaemia, osteosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma, malignant fibrous histiocytoma and chondrosarcoma.
Bone Fractures — a medical condition in which there is a break in the continuity of the bone.
A bone fracture can be the result of high-force impact or stress, or a minimal trauma injury as a result of certain medical conditions that weaken the bones, such as osteoporosis, bone cancer, or osteogenesis imperfecta, where the fracture is then properly termed a pathologic fracture.
Osteoporosis is a condition in which the bones become less dense and more likely to fracture. In osteoporosis, there is a loss of bone tissue that leaves bones less dense and more likely to fracture.
It can result in a loss of height, severe back pain and change in one's posture. Osteoporosis can impair a person's ability to walk and can cause prolonged or permanent disability
Myalgia (pain in the muscle)
The most common causes of muscle pain are tension, stress, overuse and minor injuries. This type of pain is usually localised, affecting just one or more muscles or parts of your body.
Spasms may affect many different types of muscles in the body, leading to many different symptoms.
Spasms of skeletal muscles are most common and are often due to dehydration and electrolyte abnormalities.
The spasm occurs abruptly, is painful, is usually short-lived and may be relieved by gently stretching the muscle.
Myositis (inflammation of muscle) — inflammation of the muscle and can be caused by infection, injury, some medicines, exercise, and chronic disease.
Infections
Systemic muscle pain, .which you feel throughout your body, is different. It's more often the result of an infection, an illness or a side effect of a medication. Illnesses such as malaria or the flu can cause muscle pain
Neuromuscular disorders
Neuromuscular disorders affect the nerves that control the voluntary muscles.
When nerve cells become unhealthy or die, communication between the nervous system and muscles breaks down. As a result, the muscles weaken and waste away.
The weakness can lead to twitching, cramps, aches and pains, and joint and movement problems. Examples are multiple sclerosis and muscular dystrophy.
Carpal tunnel syndrome
Symptoms include numbness, tingling and a burning pain in the hand. The symptoms start off by occurring at night, often waking the person, later they may also be experienced during the day and in some cases be so severe they can interfere with the normal use of the hand.
Gout
a common and painful condition that affects the joints. Small crystals form in and around the joint, causing inflammation, pain and swelling. These crystals are made of one of the body's normal waste products, uric acid. Normally the body rids itself of extra uric acid through the kidneys into the urine. However, this does not happen fast enough in people with gout. This causes uric acid levels to build up and the crystals to form.
Bursitis
Excessive use of a joint or stress on a bursa may cause bursitis, an inflammation of a bursa. The bursa between the heel bone (calcaneus) and the Achilles tendon may become inflamed as a result of a sudden increase in physical activity involving use of the feet. Similarly, a form of bursitis called tennis elbow affects the bursa between the olecranon process and the skin. Bursitis is treated with rest. Medical attention may be necessary.
Dislocation
A dislocation (luxation) displaces the articulating bones of a joint and usually results from a fall or other unusual body movement. The joints of the shoulders, knees, elbows, fingers and jaw are common sites for this type of injury. A dislocation produces an obvious deformity of the joint, some loss of ability to move the articulated bones, localised pain and swelling
Muscles, bones and joints are affected by the ageing process. Osteoarthritis, osteoporosis and rheumatoid arthritis are more common in older people.
Exercise to increase muscle and bone fitness can reduce or reverse the risk of disability and disease. At least half of the age-related changes to muscles, bones and joints are caused by disuse.
Ways to maintain the health of the musculoskeletal system include the following:
doing muscle strength training
being physically active at least 30 min a day
deciding on a healthy weight and setting a plan to reach and maintain that weight
avoiding joint injuries
get medical advice about supplements such as vitamin D, calcium and glucosamine
Bony Skeleton
provides a framework or shape for the body
supports the weight of the body
protects and supports the soft body organs
stores minerals such as calcium and phosphorus
produces blood cells in the bone marrow.
Muscles
together with the skeleton provide movement of the body
stabilise the joints
provide body posture
produce heat and help to maintain the body's temperature.
Root word | Meaning (origin) |
|---|---|
Arthr(o) | Joint (Greek) |
Cranio | Skull (Greek) |
Muscul(o) | Muscle (Latin) |
My(o) | Muscle (Greek) |
Oste(o) | Bone (Greek) |
Spondyl(o) | Vertebra (Greek) |
Ten(o) | Tendon (Greek) |
Medical terminology | Meaning |
|---|---|
Atrophy | Decrease in size, shrink |
Bone marrow | A spongy substance found in the centre of bones which produces blood cells. |
Contraction | The tightening or shortening of the muscles when an activity is done. |
Extension | This refers to body movement where the angle between two body parts is increased |
Flexion | This refers to body movement where the angle between two body parts is decreased |
Fracture | To break (a bone) |
Osteoarthritis | A condition where there is degeneration of the cartilage within a joint, causing pain. |
Osteoporosis | A condition where there is depletion of calcium in the bone which decreases the bone mass and leads to brittle bones which break easily. |
The musculoskeletal system consists of:
Bones
Cartilage
Tendons
Ligaments
Muscles
Joints
Muscle | Position | Action | Key notes |
|---|---|---|---|
Sternocleidomastoid: Originates at the sternum and medial clavicle - inserts into mastoid process of temporal bone. | Located at the side of the neck from the thorax to the base of the skull. | Flexes cervical spine and draws head forwards plus rotates head. | A very important muscle assists in turning the head from side to side. |
Occipitalis: Attaches to the occipital bone and skin of the scalp. | Back of head. | Moves the scalp backwards. | The occipitalis is united to the frontalis muscle by a broad tendon that covers the skull like a cap. |
Pectoralis major/minor: Arises from anterior surface of clavicle, inserts into bicipital groove of humerus. | Chest (underneath the breast in a female).Pectoralis minor lies under Pectoralis major. | Flexes, adducts and rotates medially the humerus and keeps arms attached to trunk of body. | Broad, thick and fan-shaped muscle. |
Erector spinae: Attaches to the sacrum and the iliac crest of pelvis at one end, then to the ribs and the transverse and spinous processes of the vertebrae, and finally to the occipital bone at the other end. | Three bands of muscle that lie in the groove between the vertebral column and the ribs. | Extension, lateral (side) flexion and rotation of the vertebral column. | A very important postural muscle as it helps to extend the spine. |
Trapezius: Extends horizontally from the base of the skull and the cervical and thoracic vertebrae to the scapula. | Large triangular-shaped muscle in the upper back. Fibres are arranged in three groups: Upper, middle and lower. | Upper fibres raise the shoulders, middle fibres pull the scapula towards the spine and lower fibres draw the shoulders downwards. | Covers shoulder and upper part of the back of the neck that commonly holds a lot of upper body tension, causing discomfort and restrictions in the neck and the shoulders. |
Levator scapula: From the scapula to the cervical vertebrae of the neck. | Long strap-like muscle that runs almost vertically through the neck. | Elevates and adducts the scapula (draws the scapula towards the spine). | Tends to become very tight, which affects the mobility of the neck and the shoulder. |
Rhomboids: To the upper thoracic vertebrae at one end and the medial border of the scapula at the other end. | Between the scapula. | Adduct the scapula (draw the scapula towards the spine). | Often very tight, resulting in aching and soreness in between the scapula. |
Supraspinatus: Attaches to the spine of the scapula at one end and the humerus at the other end. | In the depression above the spine (top ridge) of the scapula. | Abducts the humerus (draws the arm away from the body). | Often becomes fatigued when working for prolonged periods at a desk or computer, or when driving. |
Infraspinatus: Attaches to the middle two-thirds of the scapula at one end and the top of the humerus at the other. | Below the spine of the scapula. | Rotates the humerus laterally (outwards). | Tension here can affect the range of mobility in the shoulder. |
Teres major: Attaches to the bottom lateral edge of the scapula at one end and the back of the humerus at the other end. | Across the bottom lateral (outer) edge of the scapula. | Adducts and medially (inwardly) rotates humerus. | Tension here can resist the mobility of the shoulder and upper arm. |
Teres minor: Attaches to the lateral edge of the scapula, above teres major at one end and into the top of the posterior of the humerus at the other end. | Across the lateral edge of the scapula, above teres major. | Rotates humerus laterally (outwards). | Tension here can restrict the mobility of the shoulder and upper arm. |
Deltoid: Attaches to the clavicle and the spine of the scapula at one end and to the side of the humerus at the other. | Caps the top of the humerus and the shoulder. | Abducts the arm (draws the arm away from the body), draws the arm backwards and forwards. | Tends to hold upper body tension and will often go into spasm, along with the trapezius muscle. |
Biceps: Attaches to the scapula at one end and the radius and flexor muscles of the forearm at the other end. | Anterior (front) of the upper arm. | Flexes the forearm. | Becomes tight when the body assumes a tension posture (hunched shoulders and arms, elbows hugged tight against the body). |
Triceps: Attaches to the posterior of humerus and the outer edge of the scapula at one end, to ulna below the elbow at the other end. | Posterior (back) of the humerus. | Extension (ie. straightens) the forearm. | Becomes tight when the body assumes a tension posture (hunched shoulders and elbows hugged tight against the body). |
Rectus abdominis: Bases of 5-7th ribs and the inferior sternum. | Pubic crest and symphysis pubis. | Compression of abdomen. Flexes spine. | Broad and flat, most superficial muscle of the abdominal wall. |
Transversus abdominis:Inferior sternum, linea alba and pubis. | Iliac crest and bases of lower six ribs. | Compresses abdomen. | Deepest muscle of abdominal wall. |
Internal and external obliques: Bases of lower three ribs and iliac crest and the linea alba. | Iliac crest and lower eight ribs | Compression of abdomen and laterally bends spine. | Rotates trunk. |
Latissimus dorsi: Lateral anterior aspect of head of humerus. | Spines of vertebrae from 6th thoracic down to sacral crest. | Extends and adducts arm and medially rotates arm. | Large triangular shaped muscle. |
Gluteus maximus: Outer aspect of femur. | Posterior pelvis, sacrum and coccyx. | Adducts hip, outward rotation of thigh and extension of knee. | Large muscle which helps maintain erect position by extending hip joint. |
Hamstrings (semitendinosus, biceps femoris, semimembranosus): Tibia and fibula at either side of popliteal. | Ischial tuberosity, back of femur. | Extension of hip, flexion of knee and lateral rotation of femur. | Group of three muscles - chief action to flex knee joint. |
Quadriceps (rectus femoris, vastus medialis and vastus lateralis): Superior border of patella, tibial tuberosity via patellar ligament and tibial tuberosity via patellar. | Anterior inferior iliac spine, distal 1/3 of posterior shaft of femur and superior lateral aspect ligament. | Flexes hip joint, extends leg and knee. | Group of four muscles that act as very strong extensors of knee joint. |
Gastrocnemius: Through Achilles tendon on heel. | Lateral and medial condyle of femur. | Flexion of knee, plantar flexion of ankle. | Having two heads it forms bulk of calf and used extensively in walking, running and jumping. |
Soleus: Through Achilles tendon to heel. | Head of fibula. | Plantar flexion. | One of the main calf muscles. |
The human bony skeleton is made up of 206 bones.
Bones are classified based on their shape - long bones, such as the humerus and femur; short bones, such as the bones of the wrist; flat bones, such as the bones in the skull; and irregular bones, such as the vertebrae.
Most of us know that calcium is important for healthy bones but vitamins A, C and D along with minerals phosphate, iron and manganese are also needed.
Cartilage — a strong connective tissue that provides protection to the ends of the bones in a joint. It stops the bones rubbing together and reduces friction. Another function of cartilage is that of a shock absorber, where it reduces the impact of movement on the bone.
Tendons — These are made of fibrous connective tissue and connect muscles to bone. Tendons allow for the movement of the limbs of the body and also absorb some of the impact of muscle movement. Tendons not only anchor muscles, but also cross rough bony projections that would otherwise tear the more fragile muscle tissue and because they are relatively small in size, more tendons can pass over a joint.
Ligaments — also composed of fibrous connective tissue and attaches bone to bone. They strengthen the joint and assist in stabilising the bone and muscle.
An area where two or more bones are in contact with each other - almost every bone in the body joins or articulates with another bone.
They allowmovement and are held together by ligaments. Joints can be classified into three main categories; immovable joints, slightly movable joints and freely movable joints.
Immovable joints do not allow for any movement and the sutures of the skull represent this type of joint.
Slightly movable joints allow for extremely limited movement and the example of this is movement of the spinal column at the intervertebral discs.
Freely movable joints have much greater flexibility and represent most of the joints of the skeleton.
Hinge Joint — the elbow, that moves on just one asxis and allows for flexion and extension.
Ball and Socket Joint — the shoulder. a frelly moving joint that can rotate any axis.
Condyloid joint — the wrist, that allows for a circular motion as well as flexion and extension.
Gliding Joint — Vertebrae, that move against each other in a gliding motion as the body moves.
Pivot joint — At the top of the spine the atlas and axis, that allows for rotation of the head.
Saddle joint — The joint where the thumb joins the hand, which lets the thumb cross over the palm making it opposable.
Skull Joints —
Sutures are non-moving joints that connect bones of the skull. These joints have serrated edges that lock together with fibres of connective tissue. The interlocking edges make sutures strong and fracture resistant.
All skull joints are sutures except for the joint connecting the mandible to the temporal bone which is a movable synovial joint
Muscle tissue is one of the four primary types of tissue found within the body and it is comprised mostly of muscle cells that are highly specialised for contraction. Without these muscle tissues, no body movement could occur.
There are over 600 muscles in the human body and they are composed of many bundles of stringy fibres bound together.
Skeletal muscles are generally attached to bone. Their function is to produce movement and maintain body posture. They also produce considerable heat and therefore help maintain body temperature. These muscles are also known as voluntary muscles, as we have conscious control over the use of these muscles - we choose to walk etc.
Smooth muscles control the actions of our bladder, stomach and blood vessels. The smooth muscles are involuntary muscles under the control of the autonomic nervous system. They can move instinctively during body functioning. You may also know them as the visceral muscles. They are located in the walls of internal organs such as the digestive tract, blood vessels and ducts leading from glands. Their function is to move and control the flow of fluids through these structures.
Cardiac muscle is located in the heart. The cardiac muscle is classified as involuntary. We do not have to 'think' about the heart beating. It is the contraction and relaxation of this muscle that causes the heart to beat.
Muscles contract (shorten) and relax in response to chemicals and the stimulation of a motor nerve. Muscles can only pull, they never push and they often work in pairs or teams to bring about a variety of body movements. Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by nerve impulses to contract. Muscles make common types of movements, such as flexion, extension, rotation and a number of other movements
If there has been a break/fracture in bone then there is usually pain and deformity of the bone and swelling of the soft tissues around the bone.
Sometimes pain can occur in bones or joints without any obvious injury and this would need to be investigated to find the reason for the pain.
Swollen knuckles and joints.
Abnormal curvature of the vertebral column.
Decrease in the height of the person.
Bone becomes thin and prone to fractures (this may be identified on an X-ray).
Sprain or strain of a muscle.
Atrophy — (of body tissue or an organ) waste away, especially as a result of the degeneration of cells, or become vestigial during evolution.
Other evidence includes if a muscle is overused it will increase in size or if a muscle is not used for a period of time it will atrophy (shrink) – this happens when there has been a broken bone which has been casted and there has been little movement of the muscle within the cast.
Contracture of a muscle may occur when it has been immobilised for a prolonged period. This can cause the muscle to 'fix' in a flexed position resulting in restricted joint mobility.
Changes related to ageing or disability | Impact on the person's well-being |
|---|---|
Muscle atrophy or wasting | The older person will become weaker and shaky – have trouble opening containers or moving things |
The amount of bone mineral decreases and the bone becomes thinner | The bones can break more easily |
Joints may become stiff and more inflexible | This may lead to issues with fine motor skills and it is harder for them to write neatly |
There are changes in the muscle mass and the bony structure | |
— (Croft & Croft, 2017). | Gait and posture are altered and there will be an increased risk of falls |
People with cerebral palsy have a greater prevalence of musculoskeletal pain than the general population | |
— (Jahnsen et al in Patel, Chu & Gerstman, 2014). | Living with pain and sometimes not being able to communicate the level of their pain and discomfort |
Those people living with spinal cord injuries have a higher risk for any and all musculoskeletal problems than people without spinal cord injury | |
— (Rodriguez et al, 2021). | Pain limits any movement that they have and there is a higher risk of obesity and cardiovascular disease because of the limited movement |
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a painful, degenerative joint disease that often involves the hips, knees, neck, lower back, or small joints of the hands.
OA usually develops in joints that are injured by repeated overuse from performing a particular task or playing a favourite sport or from carrying around excess body weight.
Eventually this injury or repeated impact thins or wears away the cartilage that cushions the ends of the bones in the joint. As a result, the bones rub together, causing a grating sensation.
Joint flexibility is reduced, bony spurs develop and the joint swells. Usually, the first symptom of OA is pain that worsens following exercise or immobility.
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune inflammatory disease that usually involves various joints in the fingers, thumbs, wrists, elbows, shoulders, knees, feet and ankles.
An autoimmune disease is one in which the body releases enzymes that attack its own healthy tissues.
In RA, these enzymes destroy the linings of joints. This causes pain, swelling, stiffness, malformation and reduced movement and function.
Bone cancer may be due to a primary cancer that begins in the bone or spreads to the bone as secondary cancer from another part of the body such as cancer in the lungs, breast or prostate.
There are several types of primary bone cancers such as leukaemia, osteosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma, malignant fibrous histiocytoma and chondrosarcoma.
Bone Fractures — a medical condition in which there is a break in the continuity of the bone.
A bone fracture can be the result of high-force impact or stress, or a minimal trauma injury as a result of certain medical conditions that weaken the bones, such as osteoporosis, bone cancer, or osteogenesis imperfecta, where the fracture is then properly termed a pathologic fracture.
Osteoporosis is a condition in which the bones become less dense and more likely to fracture. In osteoporosis, there is a loss of bone tissue that leaves bones less dense and more likely to fracture.
It can result in a loss of height, severe back pain and change in one's posture. Osteoporosis can impair a person's ability to walk and can cause prolonged or permanent disability
Myalgia (pain in the muscle)
The most common causes of muscle pain are tension, stress, overuse and minor injuries. This type of pain is usually localised, affecting just one or more muscles or parts of your body.
Spasms may affect many different types of muscles in the body, leading to many different symptoms.
Spasms of skeletal muscles are most common and are often due to dehydration and electrolyte abnormalities.
The spasm occurs abruptly, is painful, is usually short-lived and may be relieved by gently stretching the muscle.
Myositis (inflammation of muscle) — inflammation of the muscle and can be caused by infection, injury, some medicines, exercise, and chronic disease.
Infections
Systemic muscle pain, .which you feel throughout your body, is different. It's more often the result of an infection, an illness or a side effect of a medication. Illnesses such as malaria or the flu can cause muscle pain
Neuromuscular disorders
Neuromuscular disorders affect the nerves that control the voluntary muscles.
When nerve cells become unhealthy or die, communication between the nervous system and muscles breaks down. As a result, the muscles weaken and waste away.
The weakness can lead to twitching, cramps, aches and pains, and joint and movement problems. Examples are multiple sclerosis and muscular dystrophy.
Carpal tunnel syndrome
Symptoms include numbness, tingling and a burning pain in the hand. The symptoms start off by occurring at night, often waking the person, later they may also be experienced during the day and in some cases be so severe they can interfere with the normal use of the hand.
Gout
a common and painful condition that affects the joints. Small crystals form in and around the joint, causing inflammation, pain and swelling. These crystals are made of one of the body's normal waste products, uric acid. Normally the body rids itself of extra uric acid through the kidneys into the urine. However, this does not happen fast enough in people with gout. This causes uric acid levels to build up and the crystals to form.
Bursitis
Excessive use of a joint or stress on a bursa may cause bursitis, an inflammation of a bursa. The bursa between the heel bone (calcaneus) and the Achilles tendon may become inflamed as a result of a sudden increase in physical activity involving use of the feet. Similarly, a form of bursitis called tennis elbow affects the bursa between the olecranon process and the skin. Bursitis is treated with rest. Medical attention may be necessary.
Dislocation
A dislocation (luxation) displaces the articulating bones of a joint and usually results from a fall or other unusual body movement. The joints of the shoulders, knees, elbows, fingers and jaw are common sites for this type of injury. A dislocation produces an obvious deformity of the joint, some loss of ability to move the articulated bones, localised pain and swelling
Muscles, bones and joints are affected by the ageing process. Osteoarthritis, osteoporosis and rheumatoid arthritis are more common in older people.
Exercise to increase muscle and bone fitness can reduce or reverse the risk of disability and disease. At least half of the age-related changes to muscles, bones and joints are caused by disuse.
Ways to maintain the health of the musculoskeletal system include the following:
doing muscle strength training
being physically active at least 30 min a day
deciding on a healthy weight and setting a plan to reach and maintain that weight
avoiding joint injuries
get medical advice about supplements such as vitamin D, calcium and glucosamine
