IB HISTORY YR 1

SET 1 — U.S. INDUSTRIALIZATION / GILDED AGE / LABOR (IB HISTORY FLASHCARDS)

Front: Standard Model of Industrialization
Back: Pattern of development where transportation, industrial production, urbanization, and expanding markets reinforce economic growth. Significant because it explains industrial growth in the U.S., Japan, and Mexico.

Front: Morrill Tariff (1861)
Back: Raised tariffs on imported goods to protect U.S. industry during the Civil War. Significant because it encouraged domestic industrialization.

Front: Legal Tender Acts (1862)
Back: Allowed the federal government to issue paper money (“greenbacks”). Significant because it financed the Civil War and expanded federal economic power.

Front: National Banking Acts (1863)
Back: Created a national banking system and standardized currency. Significant because it stabilized the economy and strengthened national markets.

Front: Pacific Railroad Acts (1862)
Back: Granted land and loans for railroad construction. Significant because they encouraged westward expansion and national economic integration.

Front: Transcontinental Railroad
Back: Railroad linking eastern and western U.S. (1869). Significant because it unified markets, accelerated migration, and boosted industrialization.

Front: United States Military Railroads
Back: Government railroad system used during the Civil War. Significant because it improved troop and supply movement.

Front: J.P. Morgan
Back: Banker who consolidated railroads and major corporations. Significant because he symbolized the rise of finance capitalism and corporate consolidation.

Front: Interstate Commerce Act (1887)
Back: First federal law regulating railroads. Significant because it marked growing government regulation of big business.

Front: Hepburn Act (1906)
Back: Strengthened federal railroad regulation by increasing ICC powers. Significant because it expanded Progressive-era reform.

Front: Andrew Carnegie
Back: Steel industrialist who built Carnegie Steel through efficiency and vertical integration. Significant because he represented industrial capitalism and philanthropy.

Front: Vertical Integration
Back: Controlling multiple stages of production and distribution. Significant because it helped monopolies dominate industries.

Front: John D. Rockefeller
Back: Founder of Standard Oil. Significant because he created one of the most powerful monopolies in U.S. history.

Front: Standard Oil Trust
Back: Rockefeller’s business organization controlling oil production and prices. Significant because it symbolized monopoly power.

Front: James Duke & American Tobacco
Back: Tobacco magnate who used mass production and aggressive expansion. Significant because he demonstrated trust-building strategies.

Front: Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)
Back: Law intended to limit monopolies and trusts. Significant because it represented the first federal attempt to regulate corporate power.

Front: Sewing Machine
Back: Increased efficiency in textile and clothing production. Significant because it transformed manufacturing and domestic labor.

Front: Thomas Edison
Back: Inventor/businessman associated with electric power and communication. Significant because he advanced industrial technology.

Front: Lightbulb
Back: Practical electric lighting system. Significant because it increased productivity and changed urban life.

Front: Telephone
Back: Technology enabling long-distance communication. Significant because it transformed business and social interaction.

Front: George Eastman
Back: Inventor of portable cameras and roll film. Significant because he expanded mass consumer culture.

Front: Cowtowns
Back: Railroad towns where cattle were shipped east. Significant because they connected ranching to national markets.

Front: Cattle Drives
Back: Movement of cattle from ranches to railroads. Significant because they supported western economic growth.

Front: Refrigerated Railroad Cars
Back: Allowed fresh meat transport over long distances. Significant because they transformed agriculture and food industries.

Front: Barbed Wire
Back: Cheap fencing used to enclose land. Significant because it ended the open range and intensified land conflicts.

Front: Fence Cutters’ Wars
Back: Conflicts over fenced land in Texas. Significant because they reflected tensions between ranchers and farmers.

Front: National Labor Union
Back: First major national labor organization. Significant because it represented early worker organization.

Front: Knights of Labor
Back: Inclusive labor union supporting broad reforms. Significant because it united skilled and unskilled workers.

Front: American Federation of Labor (AFL)
Back: Skilled labor union focused on wages and conditions. Significant because it became the dominant labor organization.

Front: Great Railroad Strike of 1877
Back: Nationwide strike over wage cuts. Significant because it showed growing class conflict.

Front: Haymarket Affair (1886)
Back: Labor protest linked to violence in Chicago. Significant because it weakened support for unions.

Front: Pullman Strike (1894)
Back: Railroad strike broken by federal troops. Significant because it showed government siding with business.

SET 2 — RECONSTRUCTION, JIM CROW & AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY (IB HISTORY FLASHCARDS)

Front: Sharecropping
Back: Farming system where tenants worked land in exchange for a share of crops. Significant because it trapped many formerly enslaved African Americans in cycles of debt and poverty after Reconstruction.

Front: Tenancy
Back: System in which farmers rented land and paid with cash or crops. Significant because it created economic dependence and limited mobility for poor farmers.

Front: Crop Liens
Back: Credit system where farmers borrowed against future harvests. Significant because it kept many Southern farmers permanently indebted.

Front: Convict Leasing
Back: Practice of leasing prisoners for labor, often under brutal conditions. Significant because Southern states disproportionately imprisoned Black Americans and recreated exploitative labor systems after slavery.

Front: Mississippi Plan (1890)
Back: Political strategy using intimidation, violence, and voting restrictions to suppress Black voting. Significant because it helped establish disenfranchisement across the South.

Front: Louisiana “Grandfather Clause”
Back: Voting law exempting people whose grandfathers could vote before the Civil War from literacy tests. Significant because it effectively excluded Black voters while protecting poor whites.

Front: Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
Back: Supreme Court case establishing “separate but equal.” Significant because it legalized segregation and strengthened Jim Crow.

Front: Jim Crow Laws
Back: Laws enforcing racial segregation in the South. Significant because they institutionalized racial inequality after Reconstruction.

Front: Black Codes
Back: Restrictive laws limiting freedoms of formerly enslaved people. Significant because they attempted to preserve white supremacy after emancipation.

Front: Wilmington Race Riot (1898)
Back: White supremacist coup overthrowing a multiracial government in North Carolina. Significant because it demonstrated violent resistance to Black political participation.

Front: Atlanta Race Riot (1906)
Back: White mob attacks on Black communities. Significant because it reflected rising racial tensions during urbanization.

Front: Elaine, Arkansas Riot (1919)
Back: Mass violence against Black sharecroppers organizing for better conditions. Significant because it exposed racial violence during the Red Summer.

Front: Tulsa Race Massacre (1921)
Back: Destruction of the prosperous Black Greenwood district (“Black Wall Street”). Significant because it symbolized racial violence against Black economic success.

Front: D. W. Griffith’s The Birth of a Nation (1915)
Back: Film glorifying the Ku Klux Klan and racist stereotypes. Significant because it helped revive the KKK and reinforced white supremacist ideas.

Front: 13th Amendment
Back: Abolished slavery in the U.S. Significant because it legally ended forced labor except as punishment for crime.

Front: 14th Amendment
Back: Granted citizenship and equal protection under the law. Significant because it became the constitutional basis for future civil rights protections.

Front: 15th Amendment
Back: Prohibited denying voting rights based on race. Significant because Southern states later undermined it through Jim Crow laws.

Front: Civil Rights Act of 1875
Back: Law banning racial discrimination in public accommodations. Significant because it represented an early federal civil rights effort.

Front: Civil Rights Cases (1883)
Back: Supreme Court decision striking down the Civil Rights Act of 1875. Significant because it weakened federal protection of Black rights.

Front: Ida B. Wells
Back: Journalist and anti-lynching activist. Significant because she exposed racial violence and advocated civil rights.

Front: Booker T. Washington
Back: Educator promoting vocational training and gradual advancement. Significant because he emphasized economic progress over direct protest.

Front: Tuskegee Institute
Back: School founded by Booker T. Washington for industrial and vocational education. Significant because it expanded Black educational opportunities.

Front: W.E.B. Du Bois
Back: Scholar and activist demanding immediate civil rights. Significant because he challenged Booker T. Washington’s gradualism.

Front: “Talented Tenth”
Back: Du Bois’s idea that educated Black leaders would advance racial progress. Significant because it emphasized higher education and leadership.

Front: NAACP (1909)
Back: Civil rights organization fighting discrimination through legal action. Significant because it became central to 20th-century civil rights activism.

Front: Marcus Garvey
Back: Black nationalist leader promoting racial pride and economic independence. Significant because he encouraged Pan-Africanism and Black self-determination.

Front: Universal Negro Improvement Association (1914)
Back: Organization founded by Garvey promoting Black unity and economic independence. Significant because it became a global Black movement.

Front: Great Migration
Back: Movement of African Americans from the rural South to northern cities. Significant because it transformed demographics, labor, and Black culture.

Front: Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
Back: White supremacist organization using terror and violence. Significant because it enforced racial hierarchy and resisted civil rights.

Front: Independent Order of Odd Fellows
Back: Mutual aid organization supporting Black communities. Significant because it provided social services excluded elsewhere.

Front: National Association of Colored Women
Back: Organization advocating education, suffrage, and racial uplift. Significant because Black women became important reform leaders.

Front: Harlem Renaissance
Back: Black cultural and artistic movement centered in Harlem during the 1920s. Significant because it celebrated Black identity and reshaped American culture.

Front: The New Negro (1925)
Back: Collection edited by Alain Locke promoting Black cultural confidence. Significant because it symbolized a new generation rejecting racial submission.

Front: Langston Hughes
Back: Poet and writer of the Harlem Renaissance. Significant because he celebrated Black culture and everyday experiences.

SET 3 — IMMIGRATION, URBANIZATION & REFORM (IB HISTORY FLASHCARDS)

Front: Richard Allen’s African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME)
Back: First independent Black Protestant church founded by Richard Allen. Significant because it promoted Black religious independence, education, and community leadership.

Front: NYC’s Phoenixonian Literary Society
Back: Black literary and debate society promoting education and abolitionist ideas. Significant because it fostered African American intellectual life.

Front: Separate Spheres Doctrine
Back: Belief that men belonged in public/work life while women belonged in the domestic sphere. Significant because it shaped gender expectations in the 19th century.

Front: Horizontal Allegiances
Back: Loyalty based on class, ethnicity, or occupation rather than family or hierarchy. Significant because industrialization reshaped social identity.

Front: Balloon Frame Houses
Back: Cheap wooden homes using lightweight framing. Significant because they encouraged rapid urban and western housing growth.

Front: Coal Stoves
Back: Efficient heating and cooking technology. Significant because they improved domestic life and household efficiency.

Front: Catharine Beecher’s Treatise on Domestic Economy
Back: Book emphasizing women’s domestic responsibilities and moral authority. Significant because it reinforced middle-class gender ideals.

Front: Anesthesia
Back: Medical innovation reducing pain during surgery. Significant because it revolutionized medicine and increased surgical survival.

Front: Sylvester Graham
Back: Health reformer advocating moderation and whole grains. Significant because he reflected growing reform interest in health and morality.

Front: Phrenology
Back: Pseudoscience claiming skull shape revealed personality. Significant because it reflected interest in “scientific” explanations, though often justified racism.

Front: Penny Press
Back: Cheap newspapers for mass audiences. Significant because they expanded literacy and popular access to news.

Front: Hudson River School
Back: Art movement focused on romantic landscapes. Significant because it celebrated American nature and expansion.

Front: Ashcan School
Back: Art movement depicting urban poverty and realism. Significant because it reflected concerns about industrial cities.

Front: George Catlin
Back: Artist documenting Native American cultures. Significant because he preserved visual records of Indigenous life.

Front: Frederick Law Olmsted
Back: Landscape architect who designed public parks like Central Park. Significant because he promoted healthier urban living.

Front: Minstrel Shows
Back: Entertainment performances using racist stereotypes of Black Americans. Significant because they normalized racial prejudice in popular culture.

Front: P.T. Barnum
Back: Showman and entertainment promoter. Significant because he expanded mass entertainment culture.

Front: Theodore Dreiser
Back: Realist/naturalist writer depicting social inequality. Significant because he criticized industrial society.

Front: Frank Norris
Back: Writer exposing monopolies and harsh economic conditions. Significant because his work criticized corporate power.

Front: John Spargo
Back: Reform writer exposing child labor in coal mines. Significant because he encouraged Progressive reform.

Front: Brown and Black Lung Disease
Back: Respiratory illnesses caused by industrial work and coal dust. Significant because they revealed dangerous labor conditions.

Front: Lewis Hine
Back: Photographer documenting child labor. Significant because his images encouraged labor reform.

Front: Wabash Strike
Back: Railroad labor conflict against wage cuts and railroad monopolies. Significant because it highlighted labor unrest.

Front: Immigration Pull Factors
Back: Conditions attracting immigrants (jobs, freedom, opportunity). Significant because they drove mass immigration.

Front: Immigration Push Factors
Back: Conditions forcing emigration (poverty, persecution, famine). Significant because they increased migration to the U.S.

Front: Lace Curtain Irish
Back: Wealthier Irish immigrants seeking middle-class respectability. Significant because they reflected immigrant upward mobility.

Front: Industrial Agents
Back: Recruiters encouraging immigration for labor. Significant because industries depended on immigrant workers.

Front: Immigrant Aid Societies
Back: Organizations helping immigrants find work and housing. Significant because they eased adaptation to city life.

Front: Chain Migration
Back: Migration following relatives or community members. Significant because it strengthened ethnic communities.

Front: Dumbbell Tenement Houses
Back: Narrow apartment buildings meant to improve ventilation. Significant because they still reflected overcrowded urban poverty.

Front: Ghettos
Back: Ethnic neighborhoods where immigrants clustered. Significant because they preserved culture but reinforced segregation.

Front: Sanitary Reformers
Back: Reformers advocating clean water and sewage systems. Significant because they improved urban public health.

Front: Flush Toilets
Back: Improved sanitation technology. Significant because they reduced disease in growing cities.

Front: Cast Iron and Steel Frame Construction
Back: Building technology allowing skyscrapers. Significant because it transformed urban architecture.

Front: Saloons
Back: Social spaces, especially for immigrant workers. Significant because they became centers of working-class culture.

Front: Baseball
Back: Popular national sport. Significant because it became a shared form of leisure during industrialization.

Front: Boxing
Back: Urban spectator sport. Significant because it reflected working-class entertainment.

Front: John L. Sullivan
Back: Famous heavyweight boxer. Significant because he became an early sports celebrity.

Front: Vaudeville
Back: Variety entertainment including comedy and music. Significant because it became mass popular culture.

Front: Coney Island
Back: Major amusement destination in New York. Significant because it symbolized urban leisure culture.

Front: Ragtime
Back: Musical genre influencing jazz. Significant because it reflected African American cultural influence.

Front: Victorian Morality
Back: Values emphasizing self-discipline, morality, and family respectability. Significant because they shaped middle-class reform movements.

Front: Conspicuous Consumption & Leisure
Back: Public display of wealth through luxury and free time. Significant because it reflected Gilded Age inequality.

Front: Morrill Land Grant Act (1862)
Back: Granted federal land for colleges focused on agriculture and engineering. Significant because it expanded practical higher education.

Front: Gibson Girl
Back: Idealized image of the educated, fashionable woman. Significant because it reflected changing gender expectations.

Front: Idealism vs. Realism
Back: Debate between romanticized depictions and realistic portrayals of life. Significant because realism increasingly reflected industrial problems.

Front: Social Darwinism
Back: Theory applying “survival of the fittest” to society. Significant because it justified inequality and limited government intervention.

Front: Herbert Spencer
Back: Thinker associated with Social Darwinism. Significant because he argued competition improved society.

Front: Reform Darwinism
Back: Belief that society could improve through reform and state action. Significant because it supported Progressive reform.

Front: Lester Frank Ward
Back: Sociologist supporting government intervention to improve society. Significant because he challenged Social Darwinism.

Front: Jacob Riis
Back: Journalist exposing urban poverty through photography. Significant because his work encouraged housing reform.

Front: Charles Loring Brace’s NY Children’s Aid Society
Back: Charity helping poor children through orphan trains and aid. Significant because it addressed urban poverty.

Front: YMCA/YWCA
Back: Christian organizations providing housing and moral guidance. Significant because they supported urban reform.

Front: Salvation Army
Back: Religious organization helping the poor. Significant because it addressed urban poverty and homelessness.

Front: New York Charity Organization Society
Back: Group coordinating charitable aid. Significant because it professionalized reform efforts.

Front: New York Society for the Suppression of Vice
Back: Organization fighting obscenity and immoral behavior. Significant because it reflected moral reform movements.

Front: City Vigilance League
Back: Reform group targeting prostitution and vice. Significant because it reflected Progressive-era urban reform.

Front: Social Gospel
Back: Religious movement encouraging Christians to fight poverty and inequality. Significant because it inspired reform activism.

Front: Settlement House Movement
Back: Reform movement placing workers in poor urban communities. Significant because it provided education and social services.

Front: Jane Addams
Back: Reformer who founded Hull House. Significant because she became a leader in urban reform and social welfare.

SET 4 — MEIJI JAPAN (IB HISTORY FLASHCARDS)

Front: Standard Model of Industrialization
Back: Pattern of development involving transportation expansion, industrial growth, urbanization, and market integration. Significant because Japan rapidly industrialized after 1868 using state-led modernization.

Front: Commodore Perry
Back: U.S. naval officer who forced Japan to open trade in 1853–1854. Significant because his arrival ended Japanese isolation and exposed Tokugawa weakness.

Front: Meiji Restoration (1868)
Back: Political revolution restoring imperial rule and ending the Tokugawa shogunate. Significant because it launched Japan’s rapid modernization and industrialization.

Front: Tokugawa Shogunate
Back: Military government ruling Japan from 1603–1868. Significant because it maintained stability but resisted industrial modernization.

Front: Sakoku (“Closed Country Policy”)
Back: Tokugawa isolation policy restricting foreign influence and trade. Significant because it delayed industrialization until Western pressure forced change.

Front: Tokyo–Yokohama Railroad Line
Back: Japan’s first railroad (1872). Significant because it symbolized modernization and improved transportation.

Front: Mitsubishi
Back: Major industrial conglomerate (zaibatsu). Significant because it became central to industrial and military expansion.

Front: First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)
Back: War in which Japan defeated China and gained influence in Korea. Significant because it showed Japan’s rise as a regional power.

Front: Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905)
Back: War in which Japan defeated Russia. Significant because it shocked the world and proved an Asian state could defeat a European empire.

Front: Tokyo Imperial University
Back: Elite university training bureaucrats and professionals. Significant because education supported modernization and state-building.

Front: Ministry of Industry
Back: Government agency promoting industrial development. Significant because the Meiji government directly guided industrialization.

Front: Osaka Cotton Spinning Mill
Back: Successful textile factory using modern technology. Significant because textiles drove early Japanese industrial growth.

Front: Iwakura Mission Group
Back: Delegation sent abroad (1871–1873) to study Western governments, economies, and education. Significant because it helped Japan adopt modern systems.

Front: Charter Oath (1868)
Back: Early Meiji statement supporting modernization and learning from abroad. Significant because it established reform goals.

Front: Meiji Constitution (1890)
Back: Constitution establishing a constitutional monarchy. Significant because it modernized government while preserving imperial authority.

Front: Imperial Diet
Back: Japanese legislature established under the Meiji Constitution. Significant because it introduced limited representative government.

Front: House of Peers
Back: Upper chamber dominated by nobles and elites. Significant because it protected elite political influence.

Front: House of Representatives
Back: Elected lower legislative chamber. Significant because it allowed limited political participation.

Front: Friends of Constitutional Government Party
Back: Political party supporting parliamentary government. Significant because party politics expanded during modernization.

Front: Meiji Emperor
Back: Emperor associated with modernization and reform. Significant because he symbolized national unity and legitimacy.

Front: Burakumin
Back: Historically marginalized social group discriminated against for ancestral occupations. Significant because inequality persisted despite modernization.

Front: Ainu
Back: Indigenous people of northern Japan (especially Hokkaido). Significant because they faced forced assimilation under the Meiji state.

Front: Japanese Invasion of Manchuria (1931)
Back: Military occupation of Manchuria in China. Significant because it marked growing militarism and imperial expansion.

Front: Zaibatsu
Back: Powerful family-controlled industrial conglomerates (ex: Mitsubishi). Significant because they dominated the economy and supported industrial growth.

Front: Post-WWI Slump
Back: Economic downturn after World War I. Significant because instability contributed to political tension and militarism.

Front: “No Dismissal” Policies
Back: Employment practice discouraging layoffs. Significant because firms tried to maintain worker loyalty during economic instability.

SET 5 — MEXICO (PORFIRIATO → REVOLUTION → CÁRDENAS) (IB HISTORY FLASHCARDS)

Front: Standard Model of Industrialization
Back: Pattern of development involving railroads, factories, urbanization, and market expansion. Significant because Díaz modernized Mexico unevenly through foreign investment and infrastructure.

Front: Porfirio Díaz (1877–1911)
Back: Authoritarian president who modernized Mexico through railroads, industry, and foreign investment. Significant because inequality and repression under Díaz helped cause the Mexican Revolution.

Front: Científicos
Back: Elite advisers to Díaz influenced by science and modernization. Significant because they supported economic growth over democracy.

Front: Positivism
Back: Philosophy emphasizing science, order, and progress. Significant because it shaped Díaz’s modernization policies.

Front: Auguste Comte
Back: Founder of positivism. Significant because his ideas influenced the Científicos.

Front: “Order and Progress”
Back: Díaz-era belief prioritizing stability over democracy. Significant because it justified authoritarian rule.

Front: Campesinos
Back: Poor rural peasants and laborers. Significant because land inequality fueled revolutionary anger.

Front: Hacienda
Back: Large landed estate worked by laborers. Significant because land concentration increased rural inequality.

Front: Hacendados
Back: Wealthy landowners. Significant because they benefited from Díaz’s economic system.

Front: Terrenos Baldíos (“Idle Lands”) Law (1893)
Back: Allowed “unused” land to be surveyed and sold. Significant because peasants and Indigenous groups lost land.

Front: Cananea Consolidated Copper Company Strike (1906)
Back: Miner strike protesting low wages and discrimination. Significant because violent suppression increased opposition to Díaz.

Front: William Greene
Back: American owner of the Cananea mining company. Significant because foreign investment dominated parts of Mexico’s economy.

Front: Rurales
Back: Rural police force under Díaz. Significant because they maintained order through intimidation and repression.

Front: “Pan o Palo” (“Bread or the Stick”)
Back: Díaz’s strategy of rewarding loyalty or punishing opposition. Significant because it maintained authoritarian control.

Front: Río Blanco Textile Strike (1907)
Back: Major worker protest crushed violently. Significant because it deepened resentment against Díaz.

Front: Edward Doheny
Back: American oil investor in Mexico. Significant because foreign influence expanded in Mexican industry.

Front: Weetman Pearson
Back: British businessman involved in oil and infrastructure. Significant because foreign capital shaped economic modernization.

Front: El Águila Oil Refinery
Back: Major British-owned oil company. Significant because foreign ownership of resources became controversial.

Front: Ricardo & Enrique Flores Magón
Back: Radical critics of Díaz who formed the Mexican Liberal Party (PLM). Significant because they inspired revolutionary opposition.

Front: 1907 Financial Panic
Back: Economic downturn causing unemployment and unrest. Significant because it weakened support for Díaz.

Front: Francisco Madero (1911–1913)
Back: Revolutionary leader and president who overthrew Díaz. Significant because he promoted democracy but failed to satisfy radicals.

Front: San Luis Potosí Plan
Back: Madero’s call for rebellion against Díaz. Significant because it launched the Mexican Revolution.

Front: Treaty of Ciudad Juárez (1911)
Back: Agreement forcing Díaz into exile. Significant because it ended the Porfiriato.

Front: Victoriano Huerta (1913–1914)
Back: Military dictator who seized power after Madero’s assassination. Significant because his rule intensified civil war.

Front: Emiliano Zapata
Back: Southern revolutionary leader demanding peasant land rights. Significant because he symbolized agrarian reform.

Front: Plan de Ayala
Back: Zapata’s program for land redistribution. Significant because it reflected peasant revolutionary demands.

Front: Pancho Villa
Back: Northern revolutionary general. Significant because he became a major military rival in the revolution.

Front: “Tragic Ten Days” (1913)
Back: Coup and violence leading to Madero’s assassination. Significant because it brought Huerta to power.

Front: Henry Lane Wilson
Back: U.S. ambassador accused of supporting Huerta’s coup. Significant because it reflected U.S. influence in Mexico.

Front: Venustiano Carranza (1917–1920)
Back: Constitutionalist leader who defeated rivals and governed Mexico. Significant because he oversaw the Constitution of 1917.

Front: Plan de Guadalupe
Back: Carranza’s call to overthrow Huerta. Significant because it unified constitutionalist forces.

Front: Woodrow Wilson
Back: U.S. president who opposed Huerta. Significant because U.S. policy shaped revolutionary outcomes.

Front: Álvaro Obregón (1920–1924)
Back: Revolutionary general turned president. Significant because he stabilized postwar Mexico.

Front: Constitutionalists (Carranza & Obregón)
Back: Group supporting centralized constitutional rule. Significant because they won the revolution politically.

Front: Conventionalists (Villa & Zapata)
Back: Group favoring regional autonomy and stronger social reform. Significant because they represented peasant interests.

Front: John Pershing
Back: U.S. general sent to capture Villa. Significant because tensions with the U.S. increased.

Front: CROM (Regional Confederation of Mexican Workers)
Back: Major labor federation tied to the government. Significant because labor became incorporated into politics.

Front: Plan de Agua Prieta
Back: Obregón’s rebellion against Carranza. Significant because it removed Carranza from power.

Front: Constitution of 1917
Back: Revolutionary constitution establishing reform and stronger state power. Significant because it shaped modern Mexico.

Front: Article 27
Back: Constitutional provision allowing land redistribution and state control of resources. Significant because it addressed inequality.

Front: Article 123
Back: Labor rights provision protecting unions, wages, and working conditions. Significant because it expanded worker protections.

Front: Articles 14 & 130
Back: Restricted Church power. Significant because they strengthened secular government.

Front: Article 3
Back: Required secular education. Significant because education became a state priority.

Front: Article 4
Back: Legal equality for women. Significant because it expanded women’s rights.

Front: Articles 32 & 33
Back: Prioritized Mexican citizens over foreigners economically and politically. Significant because nationalism increased.

Front: Zapata’s Manifesto to the Nation
Back: Criticism of Carranza for betraying revolution goals. Significant because revolutionary divisions continued.

Front: Agrarian Regulatory Law (1922)
Back: Expanded land reform. Significant because redistribution continued after the revolution.

Front: Ejidos
Back: Communally owned village farmland. Significant because land reform aimed to help peasants.

Front: José Vasconcelos
Back: Secretary of Education promoting literacy and nationalism. Significant because education unified postwar Mexico.

Front: El Maestro
Back: Educational publication promoting literacy. Significant because it spread national identity.

Front: De la Huerta’s Plan de Veracruz
Back: Rebellion against Obregón. Significant because postwar instability persisted.

Front: Plutarco Elías Calles (1924–1928)
Back: President expanding state control and enforcing anti-Church laws. Significant because he shaped modern politics.

Front: The Maximato (1929–1934)
Back: Era when Calles controlled politics indirectly. Significant because power remained centralized.

Front: Luis Morones
Back: Head of CROM and labor minister. Significant because organized labor gained influence.

Front: Cristeros / Cristero Rebellion
Back: Catholic uprising against anti-Church laws. Significant because religion deeply divided Mexico.

Front: Dwight D. Morrow
Back: U.S. ambassador helping negotiate settlement. Significant because diplomacy reduced tensions.

Front: José de León Toral
Back: Assassin of Obregón. Significant because political violence continued.

Front: Madre Conchita
Back: Religious figure linked to Obregón’s assassination. Significant because religion remained politically explosive.

Front: Emilio Portes Gil (1928–1930)
Back: Interim president ending the Cristero conflict. Significant because compromise restored stability.

Front: Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR)
Back: Political party created by Calles. Significant because it stabilized politics and evolved into the PRI.

Front: Pascual Ortiz Rubio (1930–1932)
Back: President during the Maximato. Significant because Calles still controlled politics.

Front: Abelardo Rodríguez (1932–1934)
Back: Transitional reform president. Significant because reforms continued before Cárdenas.

Front: Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–1940)
Back: Reform president expanding land redistribution and nationalizing oil. Significant because he fulfilled many revolutionary goals.

Front: Banco de Crédito Ejidal
Back: Agricultural bank supporting peasants. Significant because it financed rural reform.

Front: CTM (Confederation of Mexican Workers)
Back: Government-supported labor union. Significant because workers became politically influential.

Front: Vicente Lombardo Toledano
Back: Leader of the CTM. Significant because labor gained national power.

Front: STPRM
Back: Oil workers’ union. Significant because it influenced oil nationalization.

Front: Railway Workers Strike (1936)
Back: Labor strike demanding better conditions. Significant because labor activism increased.

Front: 1937 Financial Crisis
Back: Economic problems during reform expansion. Significant because reforms faced financial pressure.

Front: Wheat Board
Back: Government body supporting agriculture. Significant because the state intervened economically.

Front: Oil Industry Strike (1937)
Back: Conflict between oil workers and foreign companies. Significant because it led to nationalization.

Front: PEMEX
Back: State-owned oil company created after nationalization. Significant because economic nationalism increased.

Front: PRM (Mexican Revolutionary Party)
Back: Reorganized ruling party under Cárdenas. Significant because it expanded state political control.

Front: Diego Rivera
Back: Revolutionary muralist promoting workers and Indigenous history. Significant because art reinforced nationalism.

Front: José Clemente Orozco
Back: Muralist depicting violence and struggle. Significant because art interpreted revolution critically.

Front: David Alfaro Siqueiros
Back: Radical muralist supporting revolutionary politics. Significant because culture became political.

Front: El Machete
Back: Leftist newspaper supporting labor and reform. Significant because media spread revolutionary ideas.

Front: Frida Kahlo
Back: Artist exploring identity and Mexican culture. Significant because nationalism shaped art.

Front: Soldaderas
Back: Women who fought or supported armies. Significant because women played active roles in revolution.

Front: Amelia Robles
Back: Revolutionary soldier who later lived publicly as a man. Significant because gender norms were challenged.

Front: Generala Petra Herrera
Back: Female revolutionary commander. Significant because women participated in combat.

Front: Sindicato de Telefonistas de la República Mexicana
Back: Telephone workers’ union with women members. Significant because labor activism included women.

Front: Corridos
Back: Folk ballads about revolution and politics. Significant because culture spread revolutionary memory.

Front: Mariachi
Back: Traditional musical style linked to Mexican identity. Significant because nationalism shaped culture.

SET 7 — EARLY U.S. INDUSTRIALIZATION / MARKET REVOLUTION (IB HISTORY FLASHCARDS)

Front: U.S. Constitution
Back: Framework for the federal government (1787). Significant because it created a stronger national government capable of regulating trade and supporting economic growth.

Front: Hamilton’s Report on a National Bank
Back: Proposal for a national bank to stabilize currency and credit. Significant because it strengthened federal economic control and supported industrialization.

Front: Hamilton’s Report on Manufactures
Back: Plan advocating tariffs and government support for industry. Significant because it promoted economic diversification beyond agriculture.

Front: Henry Clay’s “American System”
Back: Economic plan based on tariffs, a national bank, and internal improvements. Significant because it aimed to unify and industrialize the U.S. economy.

Front: Embargo Act (1807)
Back: Law halting U.S. trade with foreign nations. Significant because it hurt trade but encouraged domestic manufacturing.

Front: Napoleonic Wars & War of 1812
Back: Conflicts disrupting international trade. Significant because they stimulated U.S. manufacturing by reducing foreign imports.

Front: Tariff of 1816
Back: First protective tariff in U.S. history. Significant because it protected emerging American industries from foreign competition.

Front: Navigable Rivers (Ohio, Mississippi, Hudson)
Back: Major waterways supporting transportation and trade. Significant because they integrated regional markets and encouraged westward expansion.

Front: Steamboats
Back: Boats powered by steam engines, improving river transport. Significant because they increased trade speed and lowered transportation costs.

Front: Cumberland Road
Back: First major federally funded highway. Significant because it connected eastern markets with western settlers.

Front: Common School Movement
Back: Reform effort promoting free public education. Significant because literacy and education supported industrial society.

Front: Indian Removal Act (1830)
Back: Law forcing Native Americans west of the Mississippi. Significant because it opened land for white settlement and cotton expansion.

Front: Eli Whitney’s Cotton Gin
Back: Machine that separated cotton fibers quickly. Significant because it expanded cotton production and strengthened slavery.

Front: Land Ordinance of 1785
Back: System for surveying and selling western land. Significant because it encouraged organized settlement and federal revenue.

Front: Northwest Ordinance (1787)
Back: Established territorial government for western lands and banned slavery in the Northwest Territory. Significant because it shaped expansion and governance.

Front: Erie Canal (1817–1825)
Back: Canal connecting the Great Lakes to the Hudson River. Significant because it lowered shipping costs and made New York a commercial center.

Front: Gibbons v. Ogden
Back: Supreme Court case giving the federal government power over interstate commerce. Significant because it encouraged national economic integration.

Front: Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (1828)
Back: First major railroad in the U.S. Significant because railroads transformed transportation and economic growth.

Front: Samuel Slater
Back: Industrialist who brought British textile technology to the U.S. Significant because he helped launch American factory production.

Front: Richard Arkwright’s Spinning Frame
Back: Machine for mechanized textile production. Significant because it inspired factory-based manufacturing systems.

Front: Francis Cabot Lowell
Back: Industrialist who developed textile mills using wage labor. Significant because he helped create the American factory system.

Front: “Boston Associates”
Back: Investors supporting textile factories in New England. Significant because they expanded industrial capitalism.

Front: Isaac Singer’s Sewing Machine
Back: Improved mass-produced sewing machine. Significant because it increased textile productivity and consumer production.

Front: Eli Whitney’s Interchangeable Parts
Back: Manufacturing system using standardized parts. Significant because it increased efficiency and mass production.

Front: American System of Manufacturing
Back: Production method using machinery and interchangeable parts. Significant because it expanded industrial efficiency.

Front: Outwork
Back: System where workers produced goods at home for merchants. Significant because it declined as factories expanded.

Front: John Deere’s Steel-Tipped Plow
Back: Durable plow suited to tough prairie soil. Significant because it increased western agricultural productivity.

Front: Cyrus McCormick’s Mechanical Reaper
Back: Machine harvesting grain efficiently. Significant because it increased farm productivity and commercial agriculture.

Front: Telegraph (1844)
Back: Technology enabling rapid long-distance communication. Significant because it revolutionized business and transportation coordination.

Front: Illinois Central Railroad
Back: Major north-south railroad linking the Midwest. Significant because it expanded national markets.

Front: New York Stock Exchange (NYSE)
Back: Major financial market for investment and stocks. Significant because industrial growth increasingly relied on capital investment.

Front: Irish Immigrants (1840–1860)
Back: Immigrants fleeing famine and poverty. Significant because they supplied industrial labor and transformed urban politics.

Front: German Immigrants (1840–1860)
Back: Immigrants fleeing political unrest and economic hardship. Significant because they contributed to farming, business, and skilled labor.

Front: “Thomas Affleck’s Plantation Record and Account Book”
Back: Plantation management guide tracking labor and profits. Significant because it reflected the growing commercialization and efficiency of slavery.

SET 8 — CIVIL WAR, RECONSTRUCTION & WESTWARD EXPANSION (IB HISTORY FLASHCARDS)

Front: USS Monitor
Back: Union ironclad warship used during the Civil War. Significant because it demonstrated new naval technology and ended the dominance of wooden ships.

Front: CSS Virginia
Back: Confederate ironclad warship (formerly USS Merrimack). Significant because its battle with the Monitor marked a turning point in naval warfare.

Front: U.S. Military Telegraph Corps (1861)
Back: Organization using telegraph technology for wartime communication. Significant because it improved military coordination and modernized warfare.

Front: Homestead Act (1862)
Back: Law granting western land to settlers willing to farm it. Significant because it encouraged westward migration and agricultural expansion.

Front: Morrill Land Grant Act (1862)
Back: Granted federal land to states for agricultural and technical colleges. Significant because it expanded higher education and practical skills training.

Front: Department of Agriculture (1862)
Back: Federal department supporting farming and agricultural research. Significant because the government increasingly supported economic development.

Front: Indian Peace Commission
Back: Government body attempting to negotiate with Native American groups. Significant because peace efforts often failed as settlement expanded.

Front: Great Sioux War (1876–1877)
Back: Conflict between the U.S. military and Sioux nations after gold discoveries in the Black Hills. Significant because it increased federal control over Native lands.

Front: Ghost Dance
Back: Indigenous spiritual movement promising restoration and resistance. Significant because U.S. officials feared it as a threat.

Front: Battle of Wounded Knee (1890)
Back: Mass killing of Lakota Sioux by U.S. troops. Significant because it symbolized the violent end of Native armed resistance.

Front: Dawes Severalty Act (1887)
Back: Law dividing tribal lands into individual allotments. Significant because it aimed to assimilate Native Americans but caused massive land loss.

Front: Barbed Wire
Back: Cheap fencing used to enclose land. Significant because it ended the open range and increased conflict over land use.

Front: Cowtowns
Back: Railroad towns where cattle were shipped east. Significant because they connected ranching to national markets.

Front: Cattle Drives
Back: Long-distance movement of cattle to railroads. Significant because they supported the western cattle economy.

Front: Refrigerated Railroad Cars
Back: Railcars transporting fresh meat long distances. Significant because they transformed ranching and food industries.

Front: Fence Cutters’ Wars
Back: Conflicts over enclosed land in the West. Significant because they reflected tensions between ranchers and farmers.

Front: Sewing Machine
Back: Machine increasing textile efficiency. Significant because it transformed manufacturing and household labor.

Front: Thomas Edison
Back: Inventor associated with electricity and industrial innovation. Significant because technological change accelerated industrial growth.

Front: Lightbulb
Back: Practical electric lighting technology. Significant because it changed urban life and increased factory productivity.

Front: Telephone
Back: Communication technology allowing long-distance contact. Significant because it transformed business and communication.

Front: George Eastman
Back: Inventor of portable cameras and film. Significant because he expanded consumer culture and photography.

Front: Interstate Commerce Act (1887)
Back: First federal law regulating railroads. Significant because it marked increased government intervention in the economy.

Front: Hepburn Act (1906)
Back: Expanded the Interstate Commerce Commission’s power over railroads. Significant because it strengthened Progressive regulation.

Front: Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)
Back: Law targeting monopolies and trusts. Significant because it represented the first federal effort to regulate corporate power.

Front: Andrew Carnegie
Back: Steel magnate using vertical integration. Significant because he symbolized industrial capitalism and philanthropy.

Front: John D. Rockefeller
Back: Founder of Standard Oil. Significant because he created one of America’s largest monopolies.

Front: Standard Oil Trust
Back: Rockefeller’s monopoly controlling oil production. Significant because it represented corporate concentration.

Front: Vertical Integration
Back: Control of multiple production stages by one company. Significant because it increased efficiency and monopoly power.

Front: James Duke & American Tobacco
Back: Tobacco industrialist creating a large trust. Significant because it reflected corporate consolidation.

Front: J.P. Morgan
Back: Banker who reorganized railroads and industry. Significant because finance capitalism became increasingly powerful.