Language and Communication Studies

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Thinking, Reasoning, & Language

Definition of Language

• Language is a system of communication that combines symbols, such as words or gestural signs, in rule-based ways to create meaning for others to understand.

  • It is arbitrary, meaning it does not resemble its meaning physically, acoustically, or sensorially.

  • Example: The English word "dog" is a different label for the same object in other languages like French ("chien") or Chinese ("狗").

  • The relationship between a word's form and its meaning is based on social convention, not natural resemblance.

• Language is crucial for:

  • Information transmission

  • Expressing thoughts and feelings.

  • Automatic process: using and interpreting language typically requires little attention and minimal effort once the skills are developed.

Features of Language

Four Levels of Characteristics for Effective Communication

1. Phonemes:

   • Definition: The sound system; categories of sounds produced by the vocal apparatus.

   • There are probably around 100 phonemes overall, but each language uses a subset.

     • Example: English uses approximately 40-45 phonemes; other languages may have fewer or more.

   • Example demonstrating impact of phonemes:

     • /p/at → "pat"

     • /b/at → "bat"

     • This illustrates that changing just one sound (/p/ → /b/) changes the word's meaning, showing that /p/ and /b/ are distinct phonemes in English.

   • Phoneme: The smallest sound unit that can change meaning.

2. Morphemes:

   • Definition: The building blocks of words; the smallest units of meaning.

   • Composed of phonemes arranged in a specific order, creating meaning only when combined according to the language’s rules.

   • Examples:

     • The morpheme "dog" comes from three phonemes /d/ + /o/ + /g/.

     • Individually, these sounds carry no meaning, but in this arrangement, they form a meaningful morpheme.

     • Example of meaning change through sound swapping: /f/+ /o/ + /g/ = "fog".

3. Syntax:

   • Definition: Grammar; rules outlining how words combine into meaningful phrases or sentences.

   • Includes:

     • Word Order:

     • English primarily follows a subject-verb-object structure.

     • Example: "The dog chased the cat" versus "The cat chased the dog" demonstrates that order changes meaning.

     • Morphological Markers:

     • Small grammatical elements that indicate how a word is being used, such as:

       • -s (plural): "cat" → "cats"

       • -ed (past): "walk" → "walked"

       • -ing (ongoing action): "run" → "running"

     • Sentence Structure:

     • Defines how words and phrases fit together to create coherent sentences.

     • Example ambiguity: "The teacher praised the student with the medal": Unclear who possesses the medal.

4. Extra Linguistic Information:

   • Elements of communication important for interpreting meaning but not part of the language itself.

     • Includes facial expressions, tone of voice, and other non-verbal cues.

     • Helps clarify ambiguous information based on context.

Evolution of Language

Advantages and Disadvantages

• Despite the long learning period and cognitive load required, the advantages of language evolution were significant:

  • Facilitates the communication of complex ideas.

  • Coordinates social interactions.

  • Aids in complex social activities.

• Generally, phonemes, morphemes, and syntax are arbitrary and disconnected from the items they denote, presenting a challenge in explaining language evolution.

• Exceptions include:

  • Onomatopoeia: Words imitating sounds they describe (e.g., "buzz" for bees, "meow" for cats).

  • Sound Symbolism: Some speech sounds are naturally linked with certain meanings, such as:

    • Words with /i/ (the ee-sound) often feel small or light (e.g., "mini", "flick")

    • Words with /a/ or /o/ suggest largeness or heaviness (e.g., "broad", "boom").

    • Example of sound shapes: "bouba" (round) versus "kiki" (spiky), typically matched across numerous cultures.

Language Acquisition in Children

Phoneme Perception and Production

• Infants begin to learn sounds of their native language in the first year after birth.

• Babbling emerges between 4-6 months: intentional vocalizations without meaning, progressing from single sounds (e.g., "ba") to combinations (e.g., "ba-ba", "ba-da"). This helps develop control over vocal tracts.

• By the end of the first year, babbling reflects a more conversational tone, and infants develop phoneme recognition for their native language.

Vocabulary Development

• Comprehension of words occurs before production, as infants recognize words long before they can verbally express them.

  • First word typically produced around 12 months of age.

  • Vocabulary ranges from 20 to 100 words between 12-18 months.

  • By 24 months, toddlers can produce over 100 words but often misinterpret word meanings and usage, leading to:

  • Over-extension: Applying a broader sense, e.g., calling all flying creatures "birds."

  • Under-extension: Using a narrower definition, e.g., the term "dog" applying only to the family pet.

Syntactic Development

• Refers to the combination of words into phrases.

• Children begin speaking in the one-word stage around one year, using single-word phrases to convey entire thoughts (e.g., "horsie").

• By age two, children progress to two-word phrases (e.g., "more milk").

• Basic syntax rule comprehension occurs before production; they understand word order's relationship to meaning before fully producing correct sentences.

• After concatenating two-word phrases, children advance to three-to-four-word combinations post two years of age, starting to employ morphological markers (e.g., -s for plural, -ed for past) around this same period.