Psychology: Memory & Science Inquiry

Unit 1: Psychological Research and Memory

Ethical Guidelines and Practices for Psychological Research

Role of Ethics in Psychological Research

• Ethical guidelines ensure the well-being of participants and the integrity of the research process.

• Protect participants from harm and ensure that the research contributes valuable knowledge.

Role of Ethics Committee

• Research must be approved by an ethics committee before proceeding.

• The ethics committee ensures research complies with ethical standards and monitors conduct throughout the study.

Ethical Guidelines for Human Participants

• Protection from Harm: Ensure participants are not exposed to physical or psychological harm.

• Informed Consent: Participants must understand the nature of the study and agree to participate voluntarily.

• Withdrawal Rights: Participants can leave the study at any time without penalty.

• Deception: Deception should only be used if absolutely necessary, and participants must be debriefed afterward.

• Confidentiality and Privacy: Participants' personal information and data must be kept confidential.

• Voluntary Participation: Participation must be entirely voluntary, and participants cannot be coerced.

• Debriefing: Participants must be informed about the purpose of the study after its conclusion, especially if deception was used.

Communicating in Psychological Research

• Use of Psychological Terminology: Accurate and precise use of terms is essential in scientific communication.

• Referencing: Acknowledge sources of information properly using appropriate referencing methods.

Memory: Sensation and Perception

• Sensation: The process of receiving stimuli from the environment (e.g., light, sound, touch).

• Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.

Processes of Sensation

1. Reception: Stimuli are detected by sensory receptors.

2. Transduction: Conversion of sensory stimuli into neural signals.

3. Transmission: Neural signals are sent to the brain for processing.

Processes of Perception

1. Selection: The brain selects relevant stimuli.

2. Organization: The brain organizes sensory input into a coherent structure.

3. Interpretation: The brain assigns meaning to the sensory information.

Attention in Memory

• Selective Attention: Focus on particular stimuli while ignoring others (e.g., Cocktail Party Effect – Cherry, 1953).

• Divided Attention: Ability to focus on multiple tasks simultaneously.

Models of Memory

1. Multi-Store Model of Memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968)

   • Sensory Register: Holds sensory information briefly (capacity: large, duration: very short).

   • Short-Term Memory: Temporary storage (capacity: 7±2 items, duration: 18-30 seconds).

   • Long-Term Memory: Long-term storage (capacity: virtually unlimited, duration: potentially lifetime).

2. Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Baddeley, 2000)

   • Central Executive: Directs attention and controls cognitive processes.

   • Phonological Loop: Stores and rehearses verbal information.

   • Visuospatial Sketchpad: Stores and processes visual and spatial information.

   • Episodic Buffer: Integrates information from different stores into a coherent whole.

Science Inquiry: Research Methodology

Formulating Research

• Aim: The overarching goal of the research.

• Research Question: A clear, concise question based on the aim.

• Variables:

  • Independent Variable (IV): The variable manipulated by the researcher.

  • Dependent Variable (DV): The variable that is measured in response to the IV.

  • Control Variables: Variables kept constant to ensure valid results.

  • Extraneous Variables: Unwanted variables that may influence the DV (e.g., participant characteristics, environment).

  • Confounding Variables: Uncontrolled variables that distort the relationship between the IV and DV.

Hypothesis

• Directional Hypothesis: Specifies the direction of the effect (e.g., "As the IV increases, the DV will decrease").

• Non-Directional Hypothesis: Indicates a relationship exists but not the direction (e.g., "There is a relationship between IV and DV").

• Inquiry Question: Used in qualitative research (e.g., "How do people experience X?").

Data Collection

Types of Data

• Qualitative Data: Non-numerical, descriptive data (e.g., interviews, observations).

• Quantitative Data: Numerical data that can be measured and analyzed statistically (e.g., test scores, survey results).

Processing and Analyzing Data

Data Displays

• Graphs:

  • Scatterplot: Shows relationships between two variables.

  • Bar Graph: Compares categories.

  • Line Graph: Shows trends over time.

  • Histogram: Displays frequency distributions.

• Tables: Used to organize and summarize data (e.g., frequency tables).

Measures of Central Tendency

• Mean: The average score.

• Median: The middle score when data is ordered.

Memory Formation and Brain Structures

1. Hippocampus: Critical in the formation and storage of new memories.

   • Henry Molaison (HM): A case study showing the role of the hippocampus in memory loss after its removal.

2. Cerebellum: Involved in the storage of implicit (procedural) memories related to motor skills.

3. Amygdala: Plays a key role in processing emotions and emotional memories.

Methodology: Participant Selection and Sampling

Sampling Methods

1. Convenience Sampling: Selecting participants who are readily available.

2. Snowballing: Current participants recruit others.

3. Random Sampling: Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

4. Stratified Sampling: Population is divided into subgroups (e.g., age, gender), and participants are randomly selected from each subgroup.

Participant Allocation

• Random Allocation: Ensures that participants are assigned to different conditions randomly, reducing bias.

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