PERIOD 7 Heimler

Imperialism

• Expansion of a country's political, economic, and military influence over another.

• Example: U.S. purchase of Alaska in 1867 from Russia for $7.2 million (Seward's Folly).

  • Gold was discovered, making expansion more desirable.

  • Territorial expansion was in American DNA from westward expansion.

Imperial Expansion

1. Imperialists

• Desired access to raw materials and new markets for American goods.

• Used Social Darwinism to justify expansion.

  • Believed America should "flex its giant pectorals of liberty" on the world stage.

• Feared being seen as a second-class nation if they didn’t expand like European nations.

1. Racial Motivations

• Reverend Josiah Strong: argued Anglo-Saxons were the pinnacle of human evolution and had a Christian duty to expand and civilize "dark and backward lands."

• Alfred Thayer Mahan: Argued a strong navy was essential for securing foreign markets (The Influence of Sea Power on History).

  • Congress approved a massive new steel fleet.

  • Strategic territories were needed for naval dominance.

Anti-Imperialism

1. Arguments

• Self-determination: Nations should decide their own rulers and laws.

  • Echoed colonial American arguments against British rule.

• Isolationism: Advocated for avoiding foreign entanglements (invoking George Washington).

  • Feared being drawn into wars and economic disputes.

1. Racial Arguments

• Debated whether the Constitution followed the flag (i.e., whether people in territories like the Philippines would become citizens with rights).

• Some anti-imperialists opposed expansion because they didn't want "brown people" becoming citizens.
  

Spanish-American War

• American industrialists and politicians wanted to expand the American empire; Cuba was a key territory.

• Cuban nationalists fought against Spain in 1895, but Spain crushed the rebellion.

Yellow Journalism

• Journalists (Pulitzer, Hearst) exaggerated Spanish atrocities against Cubans to sell more newspapers.

• This led to public support for U.S. intervention in Cuba.

• The U.S.S. Maine exploded in Havana Harbor in 1898, killing over 200 Americans.

  • Yellow journalists blamed Spain, though it was accidental.

• President McKinley issued an ultimatum to Spain who agreed to backdown, the US declared war anyway.

Effects of the War

• The United States won the Spanish-American War, expanding its empire.

• Cuba gained independence, but the Platt Amendment allowed U.S. intervention if American economic interests were threatened.

Philippine War

• The U.S. annexed the Philippines from Spain for 20 million.

• Filipinos, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, fought against U.S. rule for independence.

  • The U.S. maintained control until after World War II.

Annexation of Hawaii

• Hawaii was annexed in 1898 after the Philippines came under American control.

  • American settlers had overthrown the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893.

Open Door Policy

• European nations had economic control over China (spheres of influence).

• Secretary of State John Hay proposed the Open Door Note to ensure open trading privileges in China.

  • The European powers didn’t reject it, so America held onto some trading rights in that highly desired Asian market.

Progressive Era

During the Progressive Era, social reforms swept across the United States, aiming to address issues such as corruption, worker rights, and women's suffrage, while also expanding the role of government in regulating the economy.

• Diverse Progressives: Agreed society was deteriorating and required government intervention to address issues like big business, economic uncertainties, labor conflicts, political machines, Jim Crow segregation, women's suffrage, and alcohol.

  • Included: Protestant church leaders, feminists, labor union leaders, African Americans.

• Muckrakers: Investigative journalists exposed corruption.

  • Upton Sinclair: The Jungle revealed unsanitary meat packing conditions.

  • Ida Tarbell: Exposed Rockefeller's Standard Oil.

  • Jacob Riis: How the Other Half Lives showed poor living conditions.

• Expansion of Democracy:

  • Secret ballot: Reduced political boss influence.

  • Direct election of senators: 17th Amendment (1913) shifted election from state legislatures to the people.

  • 18th Amendment: Prohibition (led by Anti-Saloon League, American Temperance Society).

  • 19th Amendment: Women's right to vote (1920).

  • Legislative Reforms: Initiative, referendum, recall empowered voters against politicians.

• Government Efficiency:

  • Frederick Taylor: Scientific management for factories aimed to increase productivity.

• Social Justice (Race):
  Plessy v. Ferguson (1896):

  • Established the "separate but equal" doctrine, which legalized segregation. In practice, facilities were almost always unequal, disadvantaging African Americans.

  Niagara Movement:

  • Founded and led by W.E.B. Du Bois.

  • Consisted of Black intellectuals who met regularly to organize protests and actions aimed at securing civil rights for the Black population.

  NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People):

  • Formed to abolish segregation and increase educational opportunities for Black children.

  • Addressed racial injustices that were often ignored

    National Stage:

  • Theodore Roosevelt: "Square Deal" aimed for fairness between big business and workers.

  • Trust Buster: Enforced Sherman Antitrust Act distinguishing between "good" and "bad" trusts.

  • Consumer Protection: Pure Food

Causes of World War I:

• The war erupted in Europe in July 1914 after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

• Two coalitions quickly formed: the Allied Powers (Britain, Russia, and France) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy).

• The U.S. initially maintained neutrality amidst the European conflict.

Reasons for U.S. Entry into WWI:

• Sinking of the Lusitania (1915): German submarines sank the passenger ship, resulting in the deaths of 128 Americans and causing public outrage.

• German Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: Germany resumed sinking ships, including American vessels.

• Zimmermann Telegram: Germany proposed an alliance with Mexico, suggesting Mexico start a war with the U.S. to reclaim lost territories.

• President Wilson requested a declaration of war against Germany, which was granted on April 2, 1917, stating the U.S. needed to \"make the world safe for democracy.\"

U.S. Role in WWI:

• The U.S. played a limited role due to the war's relatively short duration after its entry (20 months).

• American Expeditionary Forces (AEF), led by John J. Pershing, initially reinforced French and British lines.

• The arrival of hundreds of thousands of American troops significantly impacted the war, tipping the balance in favor of the Allies.

Treaty of Versailles:

• The war officially ended on November 11, 1918, with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.

• President Wilson advocated for a stable Europe with a robust Germany, but Britain and France sought vengeance.

• Wilson presented the Fourteen Points, including freedom of the seas, self-determination of nations, and the establishment of a League of Nations.

• Wilson's health declined due to the Spanish Flu, weakening his influence during negotiations.

• Britain and France imposed harsh punishments on Germany.

League of Nations:

• The League of Nations was created, but the U.S. Congress refused to ratify the treaty with its inclusion of the League, leading to America's exclusion from this important international organization.

World War I: The Homefront:

• Total War: Countries mobilized economic, industrial, and social resources to win.

• Wartime Agencies:

  • President Wilson established agencies with Progressive efficiency (Taylorism).

  • War Industries Board coordinated labor and management for war-related materials.

  • Food Administration ensured food production for troops and civilians.

• Migration:

  • Migration from rural areas to urban industrial centers for work.

• Restrictions of Civil Liberties:

  • Espionage Act (1917) & Sedition Act (1918): Made it a crime to oppose the war or interfere with the draft.

  • Schenck v. United States: Supreme Court upheld restrictions, stating freedom of speech is not absolute if it poses a "clear and present danger."

  • Suppression of Spanish Flu reports to maintain morale.

• Red Scare:

  • Anti-communist sentiment grew after the war (1919).

  • Feared communist infiltration due to the Russian Revolution.

  • Xenophobia led to immigration restrictions.

  • Palmer Raids: Attorney General Mitchell Palmer and J. Edgar Hoover arrested and deported suspected radicals.

• Immigration Restrictions:

  • Nativism increased due to pre-WWI immigration.

  • Opposition to non-Protestant immigrants (Poles, Italians, Eastern European Jews).

  • Emergency Quota Act of 1921 & National Origins Act of 1924: Set low quotas for immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe and Asia.

• Great Migration:

  • Southern black population migrated to Northern urban industrial centers.

World War I: The Homefront:

• Total War: Countries mobilized vast economic, industrial, and social resources to ensure victory.

• Wartime Agencies:

  • President Wilson established agencies with the goal of Progressive efficiency (based on Taylorism).

  • War Industries Board: Served to coordinate labor and management, ensuring factories produced war-related materials such as armaments and uniforms.

  • Food Administration: Maintained sufficient food production, not only for troops but also for civilians.

• Migration:

  • Strong migration from agricultural areas to industrial cities due to increased employment opportunities.

• Restrictions of Civil Liberties:

  • Espionage Act (1917) & Sedition Act (1918): Laws that penalized opposition to the war, obstructed the draft, and expressed disloyal opinions or language against the war.

  • Schenck v. United States: A Supreme Court ruling that upheld restrictions on freedom of speech, asserting that rights could be limited particularly to prevent a “clear and present danger.”

  • Suppression of Spanish Flu reports to keep morale high by minimizing the circulation of the illness’s severity.

• Red Scare:

  • Growing anti-communist sentiment following the war starting in 1919.

  • Many Americans feared a hypothetical communist infiltration due to the Russian Revolution’s success.

  • Increased xenophobia resulting in more immigration restrictions.

  • Palmer Raids: Raids conducted by Attorney General Mitchell Palmer and J. Edgar Hoover, who arrested and deported suspected radicals, significantly impacting civil liberties.

• Immigration Restrictions:

  • Heightened nativism as a reaction to increasing pre-WWI immigration.

  • Growing animosity against non-Protestant immigrants, specifically targeting groups like Poles, Italians, and Eastern European Jews.

  • Emergency Quota Act of 1921 & National Origins Act of 1924: Legislation that imposed strict quotas, reducing immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe, as well as Asia.

• Great Migration:

  • Significant impacts on American society. The shift of the Southern black population to Northern urban centers in search of work and better living conditions produced major cultural and demographic changes. However, they often faced discrimination and violence, even in the North, such as the

  • Tulsa Race Massacre in 1921, which resulted in the deaths of hundreds of African Americans and the destruction of the prosperous Greenwood District, often referred to as "Black Wall Street." This tragic event exemplified the racial tensions and challenges faced by those migrating from the South.

  • In addition to the Tulsa Race Massacre, there were other riots and acts of violence that illustrated the pervasive racism and hostility encountered by black migrants, such as the Chicago Race Riot of 1919, where racial tensions erupted following a confrontation at a segregated beach.

  Furthermore, these occurrences were indicative of a larger pattern of systemic racism that persisted in various urban areas across the North, impacting not only the daily lives of black individuals but also shaping the broader civil rights movement that would emerge in the decades to follow.

  Henry Ford and the Assembly Line

  • Henry Ford's mass production of the Model T automobile revolutionized manufacturing.

  • Assembly Line Efficiency: In 1913, Ford's plant introduced a conveyor belt system, where workers performed repetitive tasks on each car, significantly increasing efficiency.

  • This efficiency lowered the price of cars, making them affordable for the masses and leading to the decline of skilled workers in manufacturing.

  • Taylorism: Frederick Taylor's scientific management principles were crucial in optimizing assembly line work, timing tasks to shave off seconds and enhance productivity.

• Automobile Culture

  • The United States dominated automobile ownership, holding approximately 80% of the world's automobiles by the end of the 1920s.

  • Societal Impact: Increased individual mobility led to:

  • Suburbanization: People moved outside urban centers, fostering the growth of suburbs.

  • Urban Transformation: Cities like Los Angeles and Houston were redesigned to accommodate automobiles, with roads becoming central features.

• Consumer Goods Revolution

  • The American economy shifted towards mass-produced consumer goods, including toasters, radios, health and beauty products, and appliances.

  • Rising Living Standards: Many Americans experienced an improved standard of living during the decade.

  • Advertising Industry: Grew significantly, employing psychological techniques inspired by Sigmund Freud to influence consumer behavior.

  • Advertisements tapped into the subconscious, promoting products based on emotional and social needs rather than just functional benefits.

• Popular Culture and Communication Technologies

  • Radio: Transformed communication and entertainment.

  • By the late 1920s, many American homes had radios.

  • Corporations like Westinghouse established radio broadcasting, offering news and entertainment programs like the Amos n’ Andy Show.

  • Cinema: Became a major cultural force.

  • By the end of the 1920s, approximately three-quarters of the American population attended movies weekly.

  • The Jazz Singer (1927) was the first movie with synchronized sound, marking the end of the silent film era.

• Cultural Homogenization and Regional Differences

  • New media spread a homogenized national culture through movies and radio but also highlighted regional, racial, and ethnic differences.

  • Black Experience: Seldom depicted in mainstream media, leading to a sense of exclusion and marginalization, yet influencing cultural movements such as jazz and blues that gained popularity across the nation.

  • Regional Differences: While major cities like New York and Chicago embraced jazz and blues, smaller towns often held onto traditional forms of music and regional variations, creating a complex cultural tapestry throughout the country. The contrast between urban and rural music scenes illustrates how cultural expressions were shaped by geographical contexts, with urban centers often becoming melting pots of diverse influences.

Causes of the Great Depression:
-The Great depression began with the Stock Market crash of 1929 on Black Tuesday
-Farmers were in severe debt due to overproduction and high tariffs that crippled the ability of the United States to sell its excess products on a global market via the Hawley-Smoot Tariff.
-Tariffs: Taxes on imports, which in the 1920s, were exceedingly high. In 1930, President Herbert Hoover signed the Hawley-Smoot Tariff into law which crippled the ability of the United States to sell its excess products on a global market.
-Stock market was artificially inflated due to risky investment behavior like buying on margin, otherwise known as speculation.
buying on margin: It was assumed that the stock market prices would continue to rise, then it became a common practice to borrow money to buy stocks.

Hoovervilles:
-Shantytowns were dubbed this name after President Hoover as a criticism of Hoover’s laissez faire economic policies at the beginning of the Great Depression.

Franklin D. Roosevelt:
-Campaigned on the promise of heavy government intervention, and once he came to power, Roosevelt did more to expand the size and scope of the federal government than any president before him.

Limited welfare state:
-This means that the government was going to take responsibility for the social and economic welfare of its citizens.

New Deal:
-Roosevelt’s New Deal was there to address the three R’s: relief for the unemployed, recovery for businesses, and reform of economic institutions.

Public Works Administration (PWA):
-Employed Americans to do federal infrastructure work like building roads and dams and bridges.

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA):
-Hired people to run electric power plants which did work to control flooding and erosion.

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC):
-Employed young men between the ages of 18-24 to manage soil conservation and forestry projects.

National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933:
-Sought to resolve economic hardship by establishing a set of codes agreed upon by representatives from the laboring community and representatives from competing corporations. These codes created security for workers by establishing minimum wage levels, shorter working hours, and the regulation of the prices of certain petroleum products.

Glass-Steagall Act of 1933:
-Increased regulation in banks and limited the ways banks could invest people’s money. It gave birth to a new entity called the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) which guaranteed people’s bank deposits with federal money.

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC):
-Was established to regulate the stock market and prevent turdish behavior like buying on margin and insider trading.

Social Security Act of 1935:
-Provided for a safety net of income for workers over the age of 65. Basically, part of a worker’s wages were

• Post-World War I Isolationism:

  • After World War I, the U.S. largely retreated into isolationism, seeking to avoid European entanglements.

  • This sentiment was driven by a sense that Americans had had enough of foreign conflicts and wanted to focus on domestic issues.

• Warren G. Harding and the "Return to Normalcy":

  • Warren G. Harding's 1920 presidential campaign promised a "return to normalcy," emphasizing healing, restoration, and triumphant nationality over international involvement.

  • This resonated with Americans who desired stability and a focus on domestic affairs.

• Isolationist Foreign Policy Measures:

  • Increased Tariffs:

  • Fordney-McCumber Act (1922): Increased tariffs on imported goods, making them more expensive and encouraging the purchase of domestic products.

  • Smoot-Hawley Tariff (1930): Further raised tariffs, leading to a decrease in international trade.

  • Kellogg-Briand Pact:

  • A pact among 63 nations, including the U.S., that attempted to outlaw war.

  • However, it was signed outside the authority of the League of Nations and lacked enforcement mechanisms, rendering it largely ineffective.

• Challenges to Isolationism in the 1930s:

  • The rise of fascist and totalitarian governments in Europe (e.g., Mussolini in Italy, Hitler in Germany) and militaristic aggression (e.g., Japan) raised concerns among Americans.

  • Events such as Japan's invasion of Manchuria (1931) and Germany's occupation of the Rhineland (1936), Austria (1937), and Czechoslovakia (1938) troubled Americans but did not immediately end isolationism.

• Arguments for Neutrality:

  • Isolationists emphasized the high cost of involvement in World War I, with over 100,000 American lives lost, and the failure to make the world safe for democracy.

  • The Nye Committee's findings suggested that American corporations had profited significantly from World War I, fueling the idea that economic interests had driven the U.S. into the war.

• Arguments for Intervention:

  • Interventionists argued that isolationism was no longer viable due to advancements in technology (e.g., submarines, airplanes) that made the Atlantic Ocean less of a buffer.

  • They warned that if Britain were defeated, Hitler could bring the war to America.

• Franklin D. Roosevelt's Approach:

  • Roosevelt was described as an "intervening isolationist," sympathetic to Britain but constrained by American public opinion.

  • He gradually provided aid to the Allies, most notably Great Britain, while trying to maintain a semblance of neutrality.

• Aid to the Allies:

  • Cash and Carry Program: Allowed belligerents to purchase armaments from the U.S. if they paid in cash and used their own ships for transport, benefiting Britain due to its naval dominance.

  • Destroyers for Bases Program: The U.S. exchanged American destroyers for land rights on British possessions.

  • Lend-Lease Act (1941): Allowed Britain to obtain arms from the U.S. on credit.

• End of Isolationism: Pearl Harbor:

  • The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, destroyed any remaining hope of continued isolationism.