Topic 1.1

• Enduring Understanding #1: Empirical data is important in identifying and explaining political behavior of individuals and groups

• Enduring Understanding #2: Political systems and regimes reflect the dynamic balance of power between the government and its citizens

• Enduring Understanding #3: Distribution of power and authority and the influence of internal and external actors affect regime stability

• Enduring Understanding #4: Political legitimacy reinforces the sovereignty of the state

• Political Science: When you apply the scientific method and principles to political phenomenons/politics; the study of why/how politics happen

  • Politics: How beliefs or opinions translate to law or policy

  • 4 Subfields: American politics, comparative politics, international relations, or political theory

• Gain insight about politics from analyzing similarities and/or differences in case studies

• Data analysis: political scientists collect data and make observations in order to describe patterns and trends and explain political behavior of individuals, groups, organizations, and governments

• Quantitative = numerical, measurable, focused on patterns/trends; Qualitative = descriptive, interpretation-based

  • Analysis of qualitative and quantitive information is a way to make comparisons between and inferences about course countries

• Correlation = exists when there is an association between two or more variables; Causation = is difficult to determine with certainty in comparative politics

  • Correlation is an association between two or more variables (more security or less violence is correlated to a higher quality of life)

  • Causation is when a —> b (cause —> effect)

• Empirical = factual/objective; Normative = value statements (I think/believe)

• Indicator: presenting a piece of information (whatever the measurement is that we are taking)

  • HDI, GDP, Gini Index, etc.

Topic 1.2

• Political Systems: compromise the laws, ideas, and procedures that address who should have authority to rule and what the government’s influence on its people and economy should be

  • dictates the relationship between the government and the people

  • The two main political systems are going to be democracy and authoritarianism (whether the people have a say or not)

    • Governments democratic relationship to the people and economy: the government works for the people (if the people don’t approve, they vote the person out of office)

    • Governments authoritarian relationship to the people and economy: works to serve themselves/the authoritarian leader(s)

• State: political organizations that combine a permanent population with governing institutions to exercise control over a defined territory with international recognition

  • permanent population + governing institutions (both are pre-requisites to being a state) = state

    • Governing institutions have to have sufficient power to oversee/control the people/permanent population

  • Sovereignty: control over a defined territory with international recognition; the monopolization of the use of force within a given territory (the only ones that can enforce)

    • Nigeria is sovereign, not the only ones with force (Boko Haram) —> Nigeria’s government monopolized the use of force

• Regime: the fundamental rules that control access to and the exercise of political power; typically endure from government to government

  • A regime can be characterized as democratic or authoritarian based on how it sets rules or makes decisions about how to exercise power

    • The Communist Party in the Soviet Union was one political system… the Lenin years would be its own regime because it was different from the Stalin years

• Government: the set of institutions (any kind of organization, set of ideals, that will continue and is inshrined in governance) or individuals legally empowered to make binding decisions for a state

  • A government’s authority is derived from the state’s legitimate right to use power to enforce policies and decisions; the right and power to govern itself without outside interference is a crucial aspect of a state’s sovereignty (monopoly of a given force in a territory —> gives governments the ability to rule)

    • Legitimacy is the right to rule

    • Authority the mechanism of ruling

    • Power the coercive ability to exercise said authority

  • A sovereign state has independent legal authority over a population in a particular territory

• Nation: a group of people with commonalities including race, language, religion, ethnicity, political identity, and aspirations (you do not have to have all of these to be a nation; they don’t have to have 100% either)

  • Ex: Native Americans, Kurds

Topic 1.3

• The 5 factors that indicate the degree of democracy or authoritarianism of states (none of these are binary/yes or no; happen on a spectrum):

  • (1) The principle that a state should be governed by law and not arbitrary decisions made by individual government officials

    • the laws and policies are done in a way that follows some sort of process

  • (2) The degree of state influence on or control of the media (primarily related to criticizing the government)

    • Democratic: free press

    • Authoritarian: restricted or state-owned media

  • (3) The degree and practice of free and fair elections

  • (4) The degree of transparency of governmental decision making

    • Are people aware of what’s happening in government?

    • Checks and balances?

    • Mechanisms to see if the checks and balances are working?

    • Who is with holding the position of ___?

  • (5) The nature of citizen participation in government

    • Civil society, lobbying, interest groups, any form of involvement that isn’t voting, etc…

• The branches of national government in democratic regimes are more likely to be independent of one another than in authoritarian regimes

  • Independence can serve to prevent any one branch from controlling all governmental power (i.e. you cannot serve in multiple branches)

    • Independence allows checks and balances to work

• Dahl’s Definition of Democracy

  • Essential Conditions for Democracy (non-negotiable):

    • Control of military and police by elected officials (similar to sovereignty)

    • Democratic beliefs and political culture (you want everyone to agree to a corse set of democratic principles)

    • No strong foreign control hostile to democracy (situation: countries will transition to democracy but are surrounded by non-democratic governments/external threats —> threats/harm)

  • Favorable Conditions for Democracy (more likely to be democratic or consolidate democracy):

    • A modern market economy and society (capitalism and democracy are bffs)

    • Weak subcultural pluralism

• Liberal Democracy:

  • Universal suffrage (vote)

  • The right to run for office

  • Freedom of expression

  • Associational autonomy (civil society)

  • Alternative information (free press)

  • Due process of law

  • Free and fair elections

    • Ex: USA

• Illiberal Democracy:

  • Limited right to vote

  • Ability to run for office is tightly controlled

  • Censorship

  • Government controlled interest groups and associations (government controls what should be civil society, petitions, associations, unions)

  • Absence of free press

  • Laws are used to control society

  • Elections are neither free nor fair

    • Ex: Turkey

• Authoritarian Regimes: illiberal democracies or hybrid regimes, one-party states, theocracies, totalitarian governments, and military regimes; a regime in which power is highly concentrated and in which power is maintained by repression and control of society

  • Common characteristics:

    • A facade of democracy (most authoritarian regimes have elections)

    • The informal and unregulated exercise of political power (missing the formalized structure)

    • Use of parties and mass organizations to mobilize people (huge rallies of the dominant party)

    • Open-ended rule

• Totalitarian vs. Authoritarian

  • Totalitarian regimes seek to acquire complete control over all aspects of the political system

  • Authoritarian regimes accept a certain level of distinction between government and society

  • Totalitarian regimes tend to embrace a utopian vision of future; authoritarian regimes are more focused on managing and exploiting the present

    • Totalitarian ex: North Korea

    • Authoritarian ex: China

Topic 1.4

• Democratization is a transition from an authoritarian regime to a democratic regime; while this process can start or temporarily change direction, the process aims to result in the following over time (every time there is a test on an institution, the institution becomes stronger; I.e. January 6th):

  • More competition, fairness, and transparency in elections (different view points, access to ballot boxes, and ability to see results)

  • Increased citizen participation in policy-making processes (the creation and execution of policy)

  • Universal suffrage for adult citizens (moving beyond voting restrictions based on gender, socioeconomic status, religion, ethnicity, etc.)

  • Greater governmental transparency (access to what policies are being proposed, responsibilities and accountable)

  • Protected civil rights and liberties (protected by law to ensure you have access; your basic human rights)

  • Equal treatment of citizens

  • Establishment of the rule of law (rule by law is equal application of the law to everyone; rule by law is using the law as a political tool/weapon)

• Factors affecting democratization:

  • Democratic electoral systems can accommodate ethnic diversity and increase multiparty competition with rule adjustments, including gender or cultural quotas, proportional representation, and changes in vote thresholds and district boundaries (ethnic homogeneity: we trust people that look like us, act like us, similar backgrounds)

  • Political corruption inhibits democratization- independent judiciaries can reduce such corruption while protecting individual liberties and civil rights (the wealthier the country gets, the more likely corruption is)

  • Democratization can stall or be reversed; political changes regarding election rules and civil liberties can support or impede democratization

Democratic consolidation refers to the process by which a democratic regime matured in terms of election rules, separation of powers, and protection of civil liberties, making it unlikely to revert to authoritarianism without an external shock (i.e. war, severe economic catastrophe)

• Happens when democratic institutions are tested and when they pass that test; UK and maybe Mexico

  • Consensus among competing cultural and political groups about governmental policies associated with democratization and economic development can advance the process and make it sustainable (if two parties agree on the process of democratization and how the economy should look, it will happen quicker)

• How Autocrats Come to Power

  • Cold War era:

    • Only some 10% emerged through decay of democracies (not a lot of democratic backslide)

    • 60% came into power via coups

    • Remainder largely through transition from one authoritarian regime to another (i.e. Iran in 1979)

    • From end of WWII until fall of Soviet Union most authoritarian regimes were ruled not be “strongmen” they by political parties (Russia, China, Mexico) or military juntas (Nigeria)

  • Today:

    • 40% come into power through decay of democracies

    • The dominant model today is single person or personalist dictatorship

    • 2000-2010, 75% of cases of decay of democracy that produced authoritarian rule led to single person rule

  • Old Pattern (pattern of authoritarian rule):

    • Leave existing governing structures in place

    • Sudden and deep purge of opponents

    • 1950-1989: 41% of all autocrats lost power through a coup

    • 1950-1989: only 7% lost power through popular revolt

  • New Pattern:

    • Slowly dismantle democracy (ex: Putin)

    • Eliminate opposition to their rule with changes made under the guise of reforms (ex: Putin)

    • Ambiguity and plausible denial hinders decisive domestic response and international backlash (ex: Putin)

    • Targets include legislatures, media, electoral systems, civil liberties (ex: Putin)

    • 2010-2012: only 6% ousted via coup

    • 2010-2012: 25% removed via popular revolt; Arab Spring, Color Revolutions

Topic 1.5

• Vast majority of conflicts start because of the inability to have both power and authority simultaneously

• Sources of power:

  • constitutions (ex: US and UK)

  • religions (ex: Iran)

  • military forces (ex: North Korea, Pakistan, and China)

  • political parties (ex: China and Russia)

  • legislatures and popular support;

• Course countries regimes have been affected by such sources represented by:

  • The Communist Party’s control over China’s military, which provided power and authority to maintain regime stability

  • The transition of power from dictatorial rule in Iran to a theocracy based on Islamic Sharia law after the 1979 Revolution

  • The transition of power in Nigeria and Mexico to multiparty republics following military rule and single-party dominance, respectively

  • The political elite’s backing of a strong president in Russia, creating a managed democracy with election rules favoring one party (The Oligarchs)

  • Constitutional reforms in the United Kingdom that devolved power to multiple parliaments, allowing the regime to maintain stability (power to Wales and Scotland)

Topic 1.6

• How a regime chooses to use power in support of sovereignty is determined in large part by its democratic or authoritarian characteristics— democratic regimes can maintain sovereignty using less power than authoritarian regimes

• Changes in regimes occur when rules and institutions are replaced either incrementally or suddenly, as a result of elections, coups, or revolutions in which a large portion of the population supports a change in political system

• Governments, including political officeholders, can be changes more frequently and easily than regimes through the relatively peaceful process of elections, appointments, and lines of succession

  • However, governments also change by more violent means, such as revolutions (coups d’etat); represented by such violent transitions in Iran and Nigeria

Topic 1.7

• Federal states (Mexico, Nigeria, and Russia) divide power among different levels of government to confer a degree of local autonomy in supplying social and educational services, while also reserving powers for the national government

  • Where significant powers are given to subnational, or regional governments

  • Advantages: citizens can participate at multiple levels, local governments can respond to local needs, less likely that one party will dominate

  • Disadvantages: can be slow and result in inefficiency, complicated for citizens to understand, conflict between levels of government

• Unitary states (China, Iran, and the UK) concentrate power at the national level with more uniform policies and potentially more efficient policy making

  • Where all political authority is in the central, or national government (still has regional governments but they don’t have real power)

  • Advantages: consistent laws throughout country, easier for citizens to understand, government can act quickly if needed

  • Disadvantages: regional problems are more likely to be ignored, easier for one party to dominate, regional governments have little power

• The degree to which power is centralized or decentralized can change over time in both federal and unitary states, and in many cases reflects a state response to internal and external actors (ethnic cleavages and operations of supranational organizations and other countries)

• Devolution (the opposite of evolution; when countries devolve power they are giving power to lower branches) and delegation of power to regional governments can enhance or weaken legitimacy, creating both opportunities for and obstacles to resolving social, political, and economic issues by:

  • Promoting policy innovation, matching policies to local needs, improving policies through competition, increasing political participation, checking central power, and allowing better representation of religious/ ethnic/minority groups 

  • Creating contradictory policies, potentially making policy implementation more complicated and inefficient, allowing inequality between regions, increasing competition for resources, and exacerbating ethnic and local tensions

    • A unitary system’s central government can take the power back after devolving; a federal system cannot due to the legal division of that power

Topic 1.8

• Legitimacy refers to whether a government’s constituents believe their government has the right to use power in the way they do (ex: Taliban in Afghanistan)

  • Legitimacy confers authority on and can increase the power of a regime and government

  • When the people recognize the right to rule

  • Does the office that this person is holding have the right to rule?

• Sources of legitimacy for both democratic and authoritarian regimes can include popular elections as well as constitutional provisions; other sources of legitimacy include nationalism, tradition, governmental effectiveness, economic growth, ideology, religious heritage and organizations, and the dominant political party’s endorsement.

Topic 1.9

• Governments maintain legitimacy through a variety of processes or factors, including policy effectiveness, political efficacy, tradition, charismatic leadership, and institutionalized laws.

  • For people to continue to consent to governance, they have to get something from government (the best thing the government can give its people is effective policy where the metric for policy effectiveness is what the people have asked for)

    • Ex: people ask for policy that lowers taxes, the government ended up raising taxes = people are pissed

  • People want governments that will respect tradition (widely respected as such; national identity)

    • Ex: the UK

  • Institutional laws and charismatic legitimacy

• Peaceful resolution of conflicts, peaceful transfer of power, reduced governmental corruption, and economic development can reinforce legitimacy.

  • Would happen within a government (a form of political policy effectiveness)

• An increase in corruption, reduced electoral competition, and serious problems (such as a poor economy or social conflicts) can all undermine legitimacy.

  • People can lose trust in government (special interest instead of will of the people)

  • fewer political parties that represent less diversity of view points

• Questions about the integrity of election results across the course countries can lead to protests that may weaken legitimacy and any ongoing democratization processes.

  • In a lot of instances, protests/coups/revolutions against authoritarian leaders stem from disbelief in the election (sometimes it stems from corruption or the state of the economy)

• Devolution and delegation of power to regional governments can enhance or weaken legitimacy, creating both opportunities for and obstacles to resolving social, political, and economic issues by:

  • Advantages of devolution: Promoting policy innovation, matching policies to local needs, improving policies through competition, increasing political participation, checking central power, and allowing better representation of religious/ ethnic/minority groups 

  • Disadvantages of devolution: Creating contradictory policies, potentially making policy implementation more complicated and inefficient, allowing inequality between regions, increasing competition for resources, and exacerbating ethnic and local tensions

Topic 1.10

• Stability = power

• Internal actors can interact with governments to bolster or undermine regime stability and rule of law, represented by:

  • Contrasting methods to combat political corruption among the six course countries 

    • Anti-corruption efforts have the ability to strengthen or undermine regime stability (if the regime is built off corruption)

    • If the government had effective methods to combat corruption, it would secure the regime stability (ineffective methods = weaken the regime’s stability)

      • Effective methods: checks and balances/co-equal branches of government (i.e. term limits), transparency/press critical of government, impartial/independent organization that can enforce anti-corruption/ethical standards, and enforcement mechanism (a way to take a corrupt official out)

  • State responses to separatist group violence, drug trafficking, and discrimination based on gender or religious differences in Iran, Mexico, and Nigeria 

    • Iran: Kurdish population (separatist movement), Shi’ia/Sunni split

      • Good if Iran can integrate the Kurds into Iranian society while appeasing their nationalist drive, but could be effective if they let that part of the country form a Kurdish state if it reduces internal strife

    • Mexico: drug trafficking/cartels

    • Nigeria: Muslims/Christians, 3 dominate ethnic groups (Yoruba, Igbo, and Hausa)

      • If the state finds a effective way to respond to the threat it can boost regime stability

  • Varied state responses to mass protest movements that oppose governmental policies or their equal enforcement

    • Governments don’t like criticism, democratic governments tend to allow it (enshrined right to be able to protest or critical speech) but it doesn’t mean that you have to accept it

    • Protests is good for regime stability because it’s a release valve (allows steam to be released from this building pressure in society)

• State authorities of different regime types attempt to limit the influence of divisive and violent actors in their countries to attract more private capital and foreign direct investment and to improve economic growth.

  • Decisive actor (peacefully divides)

  • A country needs to project a degree of stability to be apart of this global economy in order to sell and receive goods, projects, and service, be apart of global currency market, trade, international organizations, etc.

    • Somalia and Yemen are examples of countries that are not interconnected because they struggle with political stability

• Across the course countries, internal reform pressure from citizen protest groups and civil society can lead to the creation of new political institutions or policies to protect civil liberties, improve transparency, address election fairness and media bias, limit corruption, and ensure equality under law.

  • When people are protesting, they tend to be asking for something

  • In general, internal reform movement will yield new political institutions or legal changes (the degree of those depends on what the public pressure is about and the type of government/political system they are in)

    • More likely to yield meaningful in a democratic system because they listen and respond to the people (threat of the vote); an authoritarian regime has no requirements to listen to the people (tend to be more symbolic than meaningful)

      • Ex: Arab Spring (Jordan and Saudi Arabia)