Go West Young Man! Westward Expansion, 1840-1900
CHAPTER 17: Go West Young Man! Westward Expansion, 1840-1900
Introduction
Widely held rhetoric in the nineteenth century suggested that it was the divine right and responsibility of Americans to settle the West, imbued with Protestant democratic values. Prominent newspaper editor Horace Greely famously encouraged this belief by coining the phrase "Go west, young man!" Artists of this era depicted the western expansion in idealized landscapes, which often obscured the real challenges faced by settlers.
In the mid-nineteenth century, farmers from the "Old West," particularly those across the Allegheny Mountains in Pennsylvania, began hearing about the opportunities available in the "New West." Prevailing attitudes had long perceived the lands west of the Mississippi River as a desert unfit for human habitation. However, the federal government began to incentivize migration westward, tapping into the sentiment of "Manifest Destiny," a belief that Americans were divinely tasked with spreading their values across the continent.
Chapter Outline
17.1 The Westward Spirit
17.2 Homesteading: Dreams and Realities
17.3 Making a Living in Gold and Cattle
17.4 The Loss of American Indian Life and Culture
17.5 The Impact of Expansion on Chinese Immigrants and Hispanic Citizens
17.1 The Westward Spirit
Learning Objectives
Explain the evolution of American views about westward migration in the mid-nineteenth century.
Analyze the ways in which the federal government facilitated Americans’ westward migration.
Pre-Mid-Nineteenth Century Perspectives
Prior to the mid-1800s, the vast lands west of the Mississippi remained largely unexplored. Most Americans viewed these territories as uninhabitable wastelands, suitable only for Indigenous peoples forcibly displaced from eastern lands. Early explorers' writings reinforced this notion, with Major Stephen Harriman Long labeling the Great Plains as a “great American desert.”
Shift in Perception: 1840s and Beyond
Beginning in the 1840s, the amalgamation of economic opportunity and ideological backing began to shift perspectives regarding the West. The federal government introduced a series of incentives promoting westward migration while large sectors of Americans became increasingly motivated to pursue Manifest Destiny. While some saw new opportunities for democracy and economic gain, others felt a religious obligation to convert Indigenous peoples along the frontier.
Major Themes
Manifest Destiny: Coined by John O'Sullivan in 1845, it referred to the belief in America's divine obligation to expand across the continent. O'Sullivan argued that the U.S. was destined to “overspread the continent.” This principle would later justify actions taken against Indigenous peoples and other groups encountered.
Government Incentives: The U.S. government facilitated westward migration through policies and acts like the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Act.
Challenges of Migration: Individuals often faced significant financial barriers in the journey west, compounded by the risks associated with uncharted territories and the difficulties of frontier life.
17.2 Homesteading: Dreams and Realities
Learning Objectives
Identify the challenges that farmers faced as they settled west of the Mississippi River.
Describe the unique experiences of women who participated in westward migration.
The Homestead Act (1862)
Overview: Passed to promote settlement, the act granted head of households or individuals over twenty-one, including unmarried women, a parcel of 160 acres for a nominal fee, conditional on their improvement of the land within five years. Subsequently, over 270 million acres were transferred to private citizens.
Barriers: Despite incentives, the considerable costs of moving families, acquiring basic necessities, and developing land proved prohibitive for many. Economic downturns, such as the Panic of 1837, made westward migration a daunting prospect for poorer families.
Life on the Frontier
Settlers, dubbed “sodbusters,” faced a harsh environment characterized by difficult farming conditions, scarce building materials, unpredictable weather, and economic hardship.
Sod Houses: Common among settlers due to the lack of timber, these homes were constructed of mud and grass, providing little protection against the elements.
Economic Challenges: High freight costs and working capital shortages compounded the difficulties faced by homesteaders, leading many to fail or abandon farming altogether.
Role of Women
Women contributed tirelessly to homesteading efforts. Daily tasks could consume nearly eleven hours per day, often without access to reliable healthcare. However, the challenges faced in isolated conditions created a sense of partnership between spouses that empowered women to often take on management roles in the absence of fathers or husbands.
17.3 Making a Living in Gold and Cattle
Learning Objectives
Identify the major discoveries and developments in western gold, silver, and copper mining in the mid-nineteenth century.
Explain why the cattle industry was paramount to the development of the West and how it catalyzed violent conflicts.
Gold and Silver Mining
California Gold Rush: Initiated by the discovery at Sutter's Mill, which triggered mass movements of prospectors seeking wealth. The rush for profits led to the establishment of mines and towns, such as Colorado and Nevada, which ultimately fostered urban stability and developed local infrastructures.
Comstock Lode: Discovered in Nevada in 1859, it became the U.S.'s first significant silver source, generating immense wealth yet contributing to labor hazards and unsafe mining conditions.
The Cattle Kingdom
Cattle Drives and the Rise of Ranching: The end of the Civil War saw approximately five million longhorn cattle in Texas; ranchers capitalized on this by transporting them to eastern markets using railroads.
Chisholm Trail: This key cattle route facilitated mass movement, significantly boosting the Texas cattle industry. The logistical challenges presented by this era, along with societal changes in the region, initiated the cultural imagery of cowboys as central to Western life.
Barbed Wire: The invention of barbed wire in 1873 limited grazing lands and closed off formerly open spaces, marking the decline of cowboys' free range lifestyle and pushing the cattle industry towards larger conglomerates.
17.4 The Loss of American Indian Life and Culture
Learning Objectives
Describe the methods that the U.S. government employed to address the perceived 'Indian threat' during westward settlement.
Explain the process of Americanization as it applied to Indigenous peoples in the 19th century.
Government Policy Towards Indigenous Peoples
American expansion resulted in violent confrontations as settlers encroached on lands occupied by various Native tribes. Through treaties and military action, the U.S. government sought to impose control over displaced Indigenous populations.
Indian Removal Act of 1830: This act facilitated the forced migration of thousands of tribal members, culminating in events like the infamous “Trail of Tears.”
Treaties and Reservations: The 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie established boundaries for tribes, but the subsequent violation of these treaties led to poverty and marginalization for these communities.
Cultural Americanization
The culmination of westward expansion was an effort to assimilate Indigenous peoples into the broader American culture. Programs included land allotments through the Dawes Severalty Act, aimed at transitioning communal tribal lands into individually owned plots, stripping the foundations of Indigenous culture.
17.5 The Impact of Expansion on Chinese Immigrants and Hispanic Citizens
Learning Objectives
Describe the treatment of Chinese immigrants and Hispanic citizens during the westward expansion of the nineteenth century.
Chinese Immigration
Gold Rush and Railroads: Chinese immigrants arrived en masse seeking fortune during the Gold Rush and later contributed labor to constructing the first transcontinental railroad. However, they faced intense discrimination, harsh working conditions, and violent retaliations from settler communities.
Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882: This legislation marked the beginning of a sustained period of legal and social discrimination against Chinese immigrants.
Treatment of Hispanic Americans
Following the Mexican-American War, many Mexican nationals became American citizens under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo but quickly fell victim to a wave of land seizures and systemic discrimination, establishing a narrative of hardship and cultural survival in the face of oppression.
Conclusory Reflections
As settlers expanded westward, the manifest destiny ideology fueled conflicts not just with Indigenous tribes but also with those already residing in these territories. The intersection of these communities gave rise to unique cultural, economic, and social conflicts that shaped the emerging identity of America as it expanded geographically.
Key Terms
Manifest Destiny: The belief that American expansion was divinely ordained
Homestead Act: A law that provided 160 acres of public land
California Gold Rush: A mass migration of thousands to California after the discovery of gold in 1848
Comstock Lode: The first significant discovery of silver in the U.S.
Exodusters: African Americans who migrated west from the South
Sod House: A frontier home made of sod, providing basic shelter to settlers in the Great Plains.
Review Questions
Which group did not significantly participate in westward migration after 1870?
What actions did the U.S. government take to promote western expansion?
Discuss the hardships faced by an average American farmer?
This guide synthesizes extensive information regarding the westward expansion, from its ideological underpinnings in concepts like Manifest Destiny, through the implications on various groups of settlers and Indigenous populations.